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Yudkina AV, Zharkov DO. Miscoding and DNA Polymerase Stalling by Methoxyamine-Adducted Abasic Sites. Chem Res Toxicol 2022; 35:303-314. [PMID: 35089032 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrestox.1c00359] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Apurinic/apyrimidinic (AP) sites appear in DNA spontaneously and as intermediates of base excision DNA repair. AP sites are noninstructive lesions: they strongly block DNA polymerases, and if bypassed, the nature of the incorporated dNMP is mostly guided by the interactions within the polymerase-DNA active site. Many DNA polymerases follow the "A-rule", preferentially incorporating dAMP opposite to natural AP sites. Methoxyamine (MX), a small molecule, efficiently reacts with the aldehyde moiety of natural AP sites, thereby preventing their cleavage by APEX1, the major human AP endonuclease. MX is currently regarded as a possible sensitizer of cancer cells toward DNA-damaging drugs. To evaluate the mutagenic potential of MX, we have studied the utilization of various dNTPs by five DNA polymerases of different families encountering MX-AP adducts in the template in comparison with the natural aldehydic AP site. The Klenow fragment of Escherichia coli DNA polymerase I strictly followed the A-rule with both natural AP and MX-adducted AP sites. Phage RB69 DNA polymerase, a close relative of human DNA polymerases δ and ε, efficiently incorporated both dAMP and dGMP. DNA polymerase β mostly incorporated dAMP and dCMP, preferring dCMP opposite to the natural AP site and dAMP opposite to the MX-AP site, while DNA polymerase λ was selective for dGMP, apparently via the primer misalignment mechanism. Finally, translesion DNA polymerase κ also followed the A-rule for MX-AP and additionally incorporated dCMP opposite to a natural AP site. Overall, the MX-AP site, despite structural differences, was similar to the natural AP site in terms of the dNMP misincorporation preference but was bypassed less efficiently by all polymerases except for Pol κ.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna V Yudkina
- SB RAS Institute of Chemical Biology and Fundamental Medicine, 8 Lavrentieva Avenue, Novosibirsk 630090, Russia
| | - Dmitry O Zharkov
- SB RAS Institute of Chemical Biology and Fundamental Medicine, 8 Lavrentieva Avenue, Novosibirsk 630090, Russia.,Novosibirsk State University, 2 Pirogova Street, Novosibirsk 630090, Russia
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2
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Zhou Q, Vu Ngoc BT, Leszczynska G, Stigliani JL, Pratviel G. Oxidation of 5-methylaminomethyl uridine (mnm⁵U) by Oxone Leads to Aldonitrone Derivatives. Biomolecules 2018; 8:biom8040145. [PMID: 30441840 PMCID: PMC6315764 DOI: 10.3390/biom8040145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2018] [Revised: 11/06/2018] [Accepted: 11/08/2018] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Oxidative RNA damage is linked to cell dysfunction and diseases. The present work focuses on the in vitro oxidation of 5-methylaminomethyl uridine (mnm5U), which belongs to the numerous post-transcriptional modifications that are found in tRNA. The reaction of oxone with mnm5U in water at pH 7.5 leads to two aldonitrone derivatives. They form by two oxidation steps and one dehydration step. Therefore, the potential oxidation products of mnm5U in vivo may not be only aldonitrones, but also hydroxylamine and imine derivatives (which may be chemically more reactive). Irradiation of aldonitrone leads to unstable oxaziridine derivatives that are susceptible to isomerization to amide or to hydrolysis to aldehyde derivative.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qishun Zhou
- CNRS, Laboratoire de Chimie de Coordination, 205 route de Narbonne, 31077 Toulouse CEDEX4, France.
- Université de Toulouse, Université Paul Sabatier, UPS, 31330 Toulouse, France.
| | - Bao Tram Vu Ngoc
- CNRS, Laboratoire de Chimie de Coordination, 205 route de Narbonne, 31077 Toulouse CEDEX4, France.
- Université de Toulouse, Université Paul Sabatier, UPS, 31330 Toulouse, France.
| | - Grazyna Leszczynska
- Institute of Organic Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Lodz University of Technology, Zeromskiego 116, 90-924 Lodz, Poland.
| | - Jean-Luc Stigliani
- CNRS, Laboratoire de Chimie de Coordination, 205 route de Narbonne, 31077 Toulouse CEDEX4, France.
- Université de Toulouse, Université Paul Sabatier, UPS, 31330 Toulouse, France.
| | - Geneviève Pratviel
- CNRS, Laboratoire de Chimie de Coordination, 205 route de Narbonne, 31077 Toulouse CEDEX4, France.
- Université de Toulouse, Université Paul Sabatier, UPS, 31330 Toulouse, France.
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Raman N, Jeyamurugan R, Rani RU, Baskaran T, Mitu L. Synthesis, characterization, DNA binding, oxidative damage of DNA strand scission, and antimicrobial activities of β-diketone condensed Schiff-base transition metal complexes. J COORD CHEM 2010. [DOI: 10.1080/00958972.2010.485643] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- N. Raman
- a Research Department of Chemistry , VHNSN College , Virudhunagar 626001, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - R. Jeyamurugan
- a Research Department of Chemistry , VHNSN College , Virudhunagar 626001, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - R. Usha Rani
- a Research Department of Chemistry , VHNSN College , Virudhunagar 626001, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - T. Baskaran
- a Research Department of Chemistry , VHNSN College , Virudhunagar 626001, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - L. Mitu
- b Department of Physics and Chemistry , University of Pitesti , Pitesti 110040, Romania
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Arish D, Sivasankaran Nair M. Synthesis, characterization, antimicrobial, and nuclease activity studies of some metal Schiff-base complexes. J COORD CHEM 2010. [DOI: 10.1080/00958972.2010.483729] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- D. Arish
- a Department of Chemistry , Manonmaniam Sundaranar University , Tirunelveli–627012, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - M. Sivasankaran Nair
- a Department of Chemistry , Manonmaniam Sundaranar University , Tirunelveli–627012, Tamil Nadu, India
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Raman N, Jeyamurugan R. Synthesis, characterization, and DNA interaction of mononuclear copper(II) and zinc(II) complexes having a hard–soft NS donor ligand. J COORD CHEM 2009. [DOI: 10.1080/00958970902825195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- N. Raman
- a Research Department of Chemistry , VHNSN College , Virudhunagar-626 001, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - R. Jeyamurugan
- a Research Department of Chemistry , VHNSN College , Virudhunagar-626 001, Tamil Nadu, India
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Lapinski L, Nowak MJ, Kwiatkowski JS, Leszczynski J. Photochemical syn-anti Isomerization Reactions in N2-Hydroxyisocytosines-An Experimental Matrix Isolation and Theoretical Study¶. Photochem Photobiol 2007. [DOI: 10.1562/0031-8655(2003)0770243psairi2.0.co2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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7
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Lapinski L, Nowak MJ, Adamowicz L. Photochemical syn-anti Isomerization Reaction in N4-Hydroxycytosine. An Experimental Matrix Isolation and Theoretical Study. Photochem Photobiol 2007. [DOI: 10.1562/0031-8655(2001)0740253psairi2.0.co2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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8
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Synthesis, characterization, DNA interaction and cleavage activity of new mixed ligand copper(II) complexes with heterocyclic bases. Polyhedron 2007. [DOI: 10.1016/j.poly.2006.08.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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Lapinski L, Nowak MJ, Sobolewski AL, Kierdaszuk B. Photoisomerizations of N4-Hydroxycytosines. J Phys Chem A 2006; 110:5038-46. [PMID: 16610822 DOI: 10.1021/jp057186e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
A series of N4-hydroxycytosines, unsubstituted or substituted with methyl groups at N3 or C5 atoms of the heterocyclic ring, was studied using the matrix-isolation method. Depending on the absence or presence of the methyl substituent at N3 or C5 atoms (or at both of them) the syn or anti form of the compounds (or a mixture of both forms) was trapped from the gas phase into a low-temperature matrix. Upon UV (lambda > 295 nm) irradiation of the matrixes the syn --> anti as well as the anti --> syn photoisomerization reactions were observed. The syn and anti isomers of N4-hydroxycytosines were identified by comparing their experimental IR spectra with the theoretical spectra calculated at the DFT(B3LYP)/6-31G(d,p) level. For the majority of the studied compounds, the UV induced reactions led to a photostationary state. The position of the final photostationary state was found to be a sensitive function of weak interactions of a studied N4-hydroxycytosine with the matrix environment: solid argon or solid nitrogen. However, not all of the studied photoisomerizations led to a classical photostationary state. For some of the investigated N4-hydroxycytosines, the position of the photostationary state was shifted very strongly in favor of the photoproduct, whereas for some others the position was shifted so strongly in favor of the starting isomer that no photoisomerization was observed. These experimental findings were elucidated by theoretical investigations of the potential energy surfaces of the ground (S0) and first excited (S1) electronic states of N4-hydroxycytosine. The crucial result of these calculations (carried out at the CASSCF level) was the localization of a conical intersection between S0 and S1 at a structure with perpendicular orientation of the hydroxylimino group with respect to the heterocyclic ring.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leszek Lapinski
- Institute of Physics, Polish Academy of Sciences, Al. Lotnikow 32/46, 02-668 Warsaw, Poland
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Afrasiabi Z, Sinn E, Kulkarni PP, Ambike V, Padhye S, Deobagakar D, Heron M, Gabbutt C, Anson CE, Powell AK. Synthesis and characterization of copper(II) complexes of 4-alkyl/aryl-1,2-naphthoquinones thiosemicarbazones derivatives as potent DNA cleaving agents. Inorganica Chim Acta 2005. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ica.2004.12.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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Lapinski L, Nowak MJ, Kwiatkowski JS, Leszczynski J. Photochemical syn-anti isomerization reactions in N2-hydroxyisocytosines--an experimental matrix isolation and theoretical study. Photochem Photobiol 2003; 77:243-52. [PMID: 12685650 DOI: 10.1562/0031-8655(2003)077<0243:psairi>2.0.co;2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
N2-hydroxyisocytosine and 1-methyl-N2-hydroxyisocytosine were studied using a matrix isolation technique combined with infrared absorption spectroscopy. For N2-hydroxyisocytosine isolated in an Ar matrix (at 10 K), two imino-oxo isomers, one with the hydroxyimino =N-OH group directed toward the N1-H group (the form called further anti) and the second with the =N-OH group directed toward N3-H (syn), were observed in the ratio 1.4:1. The syn isomer is converted totally to the anti form after UV (lambda > 295 nm) irradiation of the matrix. A small amount of the N(3)H-hydroxy-amino tautomer of N2-hydroxyisocytosine was also detected in the matrix. This form did not react photochemically. For 1-methyl-N2-hydroxyisocytosine, only the syn form of the imino-oxo tautomer was observed after deposition of the matrix. UV (lambda > 295 nm) irradiation induced a photoreaction converting this isomer into the anti form. After 15% of the starting material had been converted into the product, a photostationary state was achieved, and no further progress of the reaction was observed. Subsequent UV irradiation (lambda > 335 nm) caused a back reaction, leading to a disappearance of the anti form and to the recovery of the initial syn isomer. All isomers were identified by comparing their experimental IR spectra with the spectra theoretically calculated at the DFT(B3LYP)/6-31G(d,p) level, where DFT is the density functional theory. Good agreement between the observed and predicted patterns of the spectral lines allowed for reliable identification. The experimental IR spectra were interpreted and discussed. The relative energies of the 12 isomers of N2-hydroxyisocytosine were calculated at the MP2/6-31G(d,p) and MP4//MP2/6-31G(d,p) levels. For six isomers of 1-methyl-N2-hydroxyisocytosine, the calculations were carried out at the MP2/6-31G(d,p) level. The anti form of the imino-oxo tautomer of N-hydroxyisocytosine and the syn form of the imino-oxo tautomer of 1-methyl-N2-hydroxyisocytosine were predicted to be the most stable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leszek Lapinski
- Institute of Physics, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
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12
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Lapinski L, Nowak MJ, Adamowicz L. Photochemical syn-anti isomerization reaction in N4-hydroxycytosine. An experimental matrix isolation and theoretical study. Photochem Photobiol 2001; 74:253-60. [PMID: 11547563 DOI: 10.1562/0031-8655(2001)074<0253:psairi>2.0.co;2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Infrared spectra of N4-hydroxycytosine isolated in argon and nitrogen low-temperature matrixes are reported. The compound was found to adopt the syn structure of the imino-oxo tautomeric form exclusively. A photoreaction (lambda > 250 nm) converting this form into the anti isomer was observed. The reaction is reversible and leads to a photostationary point. The initial infrared spectrum and the spectrum of the photoproduct were assigned to the syn and anti isomers, respectively. This assignment is based on a close agreement between the experimental spectra and the spectra theoretically simulated at the DFT(B3LYP)/6-31++G** level of theory.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Lapinski
- Institute of Physics, Polish Academy of Sciences, Al. Lotnikow 32/46, 02-668 Warsaw, Poland
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13
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Stepanenko T, Lapinski L, Sobolewski AL, Nowak MJ, Kierdaszuk B. Photochemical Syn−Anti Isomerization Reaction in 1-Methyl-N4-hydroxycytosine. An Experimental Matrix Isolation and Theoretical Density Functional Theory Study. J Phys Chem A 2000. [DOI: 10.1021/jp001595n] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Tetyana Stepanenko
- Institute of Physics, Polish Academy of Sciences, Al. Lotnikow 32/46, 02-668 Warsaw, Poland, and Department of Biophysics, Institute of Experimental Physics, University of Warsaw, Al. Żwirki i Wigury 93, 02-089 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Leszek Lapinski
- Institute of Physics, Polish Academy of Sciences, Al. Lotnikow 32/46, 02-668 Warsaw, Poland, and Department of Biophysics, Institute of Experimental Physics, University of Warsaw, Al. Żwirki i Wigury 93, 02-089 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Andrzej L. Sobolewski
- Institute of Physics, Polish Academy of Sciences, Al. Lotnikow 32/46, 02-668 Warsaw, Poland, and Department of Biophysics, Institute of Experimental Physics, University of Warsaw, Al. Żwirki i Wigury 93, 02-089 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Maciej J. Nowak
- Institute of Physics, Polish Academy of Sciences, Al. Lotnikow 32/46, 02-668 Warsaw, Poland, and Department of Biophysics, Institute of Experimental Physics, University of Warsaw, Al. Żwirki i Wigury 93, 02-089 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Borys Kierdaszuk
- Institute of Physics, Polish Academy of Sciences, Al. Lotnikow 32/46, 02-668 Warsaw, Poland, and Department of Biophysics, Institute of Experimental Physics, University of Warsaw, Al. Żwirki i Wigury 93, 02-089 Warsaw, Poland
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Synthesis, spectral studies and nuclease activity of mixed ligand copper(II) complexes of heteroaromatic semicarbazones/thiosemicarbazones and pyridine. J Inorg Biochem 1999. [DOI: 10.1016/s0162-0134(99)00188-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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15
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Niedźwiecka-Kornaś A, Kierdaszuk B, Stolarski R, Shugar D. Tautomerism, acid-base properties and conformation of methylated analogues of the promutagenic N4-hydroxycytosine. Biophys Chem 1998; 71:87-98. [PMID: 17029694 DOI: 10.1016/s0301-4622(97)00138-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/1997] [Accepted: 11/20/1997] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
UV and NMR spectroscopy were employed to study the tautomerism, acid-base properties and conformation of the exocyclic N(4)-OH group in 1-methyl-N(4)-hydroxycytosine (1-mOH(4)C), and its methyl derivatives, viz. the fixed imino forms (1,3-m(2)OH(4)C and 1,3,5-m(3)OH(4)C), the fixed amino form (1,N(4)-m(2)OH(4)C), and analogues sterically constrained to the form syn (1,5-m(2)OH(4)C) or anti (1,3-m(2)OH(4)C) with respect to the ring N(3). Relative to 1,N(4)-m(2)OH(4)C, UV spectroscopy showed that the other analogues were predominantly imino and that all analogues formed a structurally common cation in acid medium, with results pointing to approximately 90% population of the imino species for 1-mOH(4)C and 1,5-m(2)OH(4)C, further supported by NMR spectroscopy. Both exhibited two sequential dissociations in alkaline medium, the first due to N(4)-OH, followed by the N(3)-H. (1)H and (13)C NMR spectroscopy showed 1-mOH(4)C in the conformation syn. With 1,3,5-m(3)OH(4)C, an ;overcrowded' planar molecule with steric constraints to both the syn and anti conformations, a syn-anti equilibrium is observed, with a preference of approximately 75% for the anti rotamer, independently of the polarity of the medium. Exchange between the rotamers is slow on the NMR time-scale, with a minimal barrier to exchange exceeding 100 kJ/mol. In low-polar media, the analogues associate as dimers via O(4)-Hcdots, three dots, centeredO(2) or O(4)-Hcdots, three dots, centeredN(4) hydrogen bonds, with association constants at ambient temperature of 4.6 (1,3-m(2)OH(4)C), 12.8 (anti 1,3,5-m(3)OH(4)C), 36 (1,5-m(2)OH(4)C), 109 (syn 1,3,5-m(3)OH(4)C) M(-1). Implications of the overall findings to the promutagenic activities of OH(4)C and OMe(4)C are examined.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Niedźwiecka-Kornaś
- Department of Biophysics, Institute of Experimental Physics, University of Warsaw, Poland
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Kierdaszuk B, Johansson C, Drakenberg T, Stolarski R, Shugar D. Mechanism of hydroxylamine mutagenesis: Role of tautomerism, conformation and proton exchange on base pairing between the promutagen N6 methoxyadenosine and uridine. Biophys Chem 1993. [DOI: 10.1016/0301-4622(93)80014-a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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17
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Efficient hydroxylamine mutagenesis ofHaloferax mediterranei and other extremely halophilic archaebacteria. Curr Microbiol 1990. [DOI: 10.1007/bf02091824] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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18
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Pagano DA, Zeiger E. Conditions affecting the mutagenicity of sodium bisulfite in Salmonella typhimurium. Mutat Res 1987; 179:159-66. [PMID: 3302691 DOI: 10.1016/0027-5107(87)90306-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Sodium bisulfite is a weak mutagen at pH 5 and 6 in S. typhimurium strains carrying the hisG46 and hisD6610 mutations, but is not mutagenic in strains with the hisC3076 or hisD3052 mutations. The bisulfite-induced base-pair substitution mutations were slightly enhanced by the presence of the plasmid, pKM101, but inhibited by the presence of the uvrB and rfa mutations. The hisO1242 mutation which causes constitutive expression of the histidine operon, produced a slight enhancement of frameshift (hisD6610), but not base-pair substitution (hisG46) mutations. Bisulfite-induced mutations appear to be the result of two different mechanisms which may be a function of the repair capacity of the strains. The data suggest that the deamination of cytosine may not be responsible for frameshift mutations, but may be responsible for base-pair substitution mutagenesis. Because the rate of bisulfite autooxidation appears to play a role in the mutagenic process, we are suggesting that the deamination of cytosine may be the result of oxidative damage rather than through the direct formation of a cytosine-bisulfite adduct. This is further supported by the much lower concentrations of bisulfite needed to cause mutagenicity than the 1 M concentrations cited to produce cytosine-bisulfite adducts.
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New light on tautomerism of purines and pyrimidines and its biological and genetic implications. J Biosci 1985. [DOI: 10.1007/bf02702764] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Holden I, Segall Y, Kimmel EC, Casida JE. Peracid-mediated -oxidation and rearrangement of dimethylphosphoramides: plausible model for oxidative bioactivation of the carcinogen hexamethylphosphoramide (HMPA). Tetrahedron Lett 1982. [DOI: 10.1016/s0040-4039(00)85771-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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