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Hassan AHE, Phan TN, Moon S, Lee CH, Kim YJ, Cho SB, El-Sayed SM, Choi Y, No JH, Lee YS. Design, synthesis, and repurposing of O 6-aminoalkyl-sulfuretin analogs towards discovery of potential lead compounds as antileishmanial agents. Eur J Med Chem 2023; 251:115256. [PMID: 36944273 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2023.115256] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2023] [Revised: 02/25/2023] [Accepted: 03/05/2023] [Indexed: 03/11/2023]
Abstract
Up to date, there are still significantly unmet clinical needs for treatment of the fatal visceral leishmaniasis; a neglected tropical disease. Herein, a recently reported antileishmanial hit sulfuretin analog suffering from a low potency and a problematic aqueous solubility that hindered further development was used as a starting point. A mitigation rational via incorporation of O6-aminoalkyl moiety suggest structures analogous to literature-known compounds as cholinesterase inhibitors. Consequently, preparation and repurposing of a library of these compounds unveiled their potential activity against the parasite Leishmania donovani promastigotes. Further evaluation against intracellular form of the parasite and host cells suggested compounds 2a, 2c, and 2o derived from sulfuretin analogs bearing 2'-methoxy or 2',5'-dimethoxy substituents at ring-B as promising lead compounds with potential activity and acceptable safety window relative to the standard edelfosine. In silico simulation predicted plausible binding modes of these compounds to L. donovani fumarate reductase. Together this work presents compound 2o as a potential lead compound for further development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmed H E Hassan
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Mansoura University, Mansoura, 35516, Egypt; Medicinal Chemistry Laboratory, Department of Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, 02447, Republic of Korea.
| | - Trong-Nhat Phan
- Host-Parasite Research Laboratory, Institut Pasteur Korea, Seongnam-si, Gyeonggi-do, 13488, Republic of Korea
| | - Suyeon Moon
- Department of Fundamental Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, 02447, Republic of Korea
| | - Chae Hyeon Lee
- Department of Fundamental Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, 02447, Republic of Korea
| | - Yeon Ju Kim
- Department of Fundamental Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, 02447, Republic of Korea
| | - Soo Bin Cho
- Department of Fundamental Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, 02447, Republic of Korea
| | - Selwan M El-Sayed
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Mansoura University, Mansoura, 35516, Egypt
| | - Yeonwoo Choi
- Department of Fundamental Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, 02447, Republic of Korea
| | - Joo Hwan No
- Host-Parasite Research Laboratory, Institut Pasteur Korea, Seongnam-si, Gyeonggi-do, 13488, Republic of Korea
| | - Yong Sup Lee
- Medicinal Chemistry Laboratory, Department of Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, 02447, Republic of Korea; Department of Fundamental Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, 02447, Republic of Korea.
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Design, Rational Repurposing, Synthesis, In Vitro Evaluation, Homology Modeling and In Silico Study of Sulfuretin Analogs as Potential Antileishmanial Hit Compounds. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2022; 15:ph15091058. [PMID: 36145279 PMCID: PMC9504330 DOI: 10.3390/ph15091058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2021] [Revised: 08/05/2022] [Accepted: 08/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Direct growth inhibition of infectious organisms coupled with immunomodulation to counteract the immunosuppressive environment might be a beneficial therapeutic approach. Herein, a library of sulfuretin analogs were developed with potential capabilities to inhibit production of the immunosuppressive PGE2 and elicit direct growth inhibition against Leishmania donovani; the major causative agent of the fatal visceral leishmaniasis. Amongst explored library members bearing diverse methoxy and/or hydroxy substitution patterns at rings B and A, analog 1i retaining the C6-hydroxy moiety at ring-A, but possessing methoxy moieties in place of the polar dihydroxy moieties of sulfuretin ring-B, as well as analog 1q retaining the sulfuretin′s polar dihydroxy moieties at ring-B, but incorporating a C6-methoxy moiety instead of the C6-hydroxy moiety at ring-A, were the most promising hit compounds. Cytotoxicity evaluation suggested that analog 1i possesses a safety profile inducing the death of the parasite rather than host cells. In silico simulation provided insights into their possible binding with Leishmania donovani fumarate reductase. The current investigation presents sulfuretin analogs 1i and 1q as potential hit compounds for further development of multifunctional therapeutic agents against visceral leishmaniasis.
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Pedra-Rezende Y, Bombaça ACS, Menna-Barreto/ RFS. Is the mitochondrion a promising drug target in trypanosomatids? Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 2022; 117:e210379. [PMID: 35195164 PMCID: PMC8862782 DOI: 10.1590/0074-02760210379] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2021] [Accepted: 12/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
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Abstract
INTRODUCTION Parasitic diseases that pose a threat to human life include leishmaniasis - caused by protozoan parasite Leishmania species. Existing drugs have limitations due to deleterious side effects like teratogenicity, high cost and drug resistance. This calls for the need to have an insight into therapeutic aspects of disease. Areas covered: We have identified different drug targets via. molecular, imuunological, metabolic as well as by system biology approaches. We bring these promising drug targets into light so that they can be explored to their maximum. In an effort to bridge the gaps between existing knowledge and prospects of drug discovery, we have compiled interesting studies on drug targets, thereby paving the way for establishment of better therapeutic aspects. Expert opinion: Advancements in technology shed light on many unexplored pathways. Further probing of well established pathways led to the discovery of new drug targets. This review is a comprehensive report on current and emerging drug targets, with emphasis on several metabolic targets, organellar biochemistry, salvage pathways, epigenetics, kinome and more. Identification of new targets can contribute significantly towards strengthening the pipeline for disease elimination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shyam Sundar
- Department of Medicine, Institute of Medical Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi-221 005, UP, India
| | - Bhawana Singh
- Department of Medicine, Institute of Medical Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi-221 005, UP, India
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Bombaça ACS, Dias FDA, Ennes-Vidal V, Garcia-Gomes ADS, Sorgine MHF, d'Avila-Levy CM, Menna-Barreto RFS. Hydrogen peroxide resistance in Strigomonas culicis: Effects on mitochondrial functionality and Aedes aegypti interaction. Free Radic Biol Med 2017; 113:255-266. [PMID: 28993269 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2017.10.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2017] [Revised: 10/04/2017] [Accepted: 10/05/2017] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are toxic molecules involved in several biological processes such as cellular signaling, proliferation, differentiation and cell death. Adaptations to oxidative environments are crucial for the success of the colonization of insects by protozoa. Strigomonas culicis is a monoxenic trypanosomatid found in the midgut of mosquitoes and presenting a life cycle restricted to the epimastigote form. Among S. culicis peculiarities, there is an endosymbiotic bacterium in the cytoplasm, which completes essential biosynthetic routes of the host cell and may represent an intermediary evolutive step in organelle origin, thus constituting an interesting model for evolutive researches. In this work, we induced ROS resistance in wild type S. culicis epimastigotes by the incubation with increasing concentrations of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), and compared the oxidative and energetic metabolisms among wild type, wild type-H2O2 resistant and aposymbiotic strains. Resistant protozoa were less sensitive to the oxidative challenge and more dependent on oxidative phosphorylation, which was demonstrated by higher oxygen consumption and mitochondrial membrane potential, increased activity of complexes II-III and IV, increased complex II gene expression and higher ATP production. Furthermore, the wild type-H2O2 resistant strain produced reduced ROS levels and showed lower lipid peroxidation, as well as an increase in gene expression of antioxidant enzymes and thiol-dependent peroxidase activity. On the other hand, the aposymbiotic strain showed impaired mitochondrial function, higher H2O2 production and deficient antioxidant response. The induction of H2O2 resistance also led to a remarkable increase in Aedes aegypti midgut binding in vitro and colonization in vivo, indicating that both the pro-oxidant environment in the mosquito gut and the oxidative stress susceptibility regulate S. culicis population in invertebrates.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Felipe de Almeida Dias
- Laboratório de Bioquímica de Artrópodes Hematófagos, Instituto de Bioquímica Médica, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Vitor Ennes-Vidal
- Laboratório de Estudos Integrados em Protozoologia, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Aline Dos Santos Garcia-Gomes
- Laboratório de Estudos Integrados em Protozoologia, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil; Laboratório de Microbiologia, Instituto Federal de Educação, Ciência e Tecnologia do Rio de Janeiro, Campus Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Marcos Henrique Ferreira Sorgine
- Laboratório de Bioquímica de Artrópodes Hematófagos, Instituto de Bioquímica Médica, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Claudia Masini d'Avila-Levy
- Laboratório de Estudos Integrados em Protozoologia, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
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Role of mitochondria in the leishmanicidal effects and toxicity of acyl phloroglucinol derivatives: nemorosone and guttiferone A. Parasitology 2015; 142:1239-48. [PMID: 26027642 DOI: 10.1017/s0031182015000608] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Nemorosone (Nem) and guttiferone A (GutA) are acyl phloroglucinol derivatives (APD) that are present in different natural products. For both compounds anti-cancer and anti-microbial properties have been reported. In particular, an anti-leishmanial activity of both compounds was demonstrated. The aim of this study was to explore the possible role of mitochondria in the anti-leishmanial activity of Nem and GutA in comparison with their action on mammalian mitochondria. Both APD inhibited the growth of promastigotes of Leishmania tarentolae (LtP) with half maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) values of 0·67 ± 0·17 and 6·2 ± 2·6 μ m; while IC50 values for cytotoxicity against peritoneal macrophages from BALB/c mice were of 29·5 ± 3·7 and 9·2 ± 0·9 μ m, respectively. Nemorosone strongly inhibited LtP oxygen consumption, caused species-specific inhibition (P < 0·05) of succinate:ubiquinone oxidoreductase (complex II) from LtP-mitochondria and significantly increased (P < 0·05) the mitochondrial superoxide production. In contrast, GutA caused only a moderate reduction of respiration in LtP and triggered less superoxide radical production in LtP compared with Nem. In addition, GutA inhibited mitochondrial complex III in bovine heart submitochondrial particles, which is possibly involved in its mammalian toxicity. Both compounds demonstrated at low micromolar concentrations an effect on the mitochondrial membrane potential in LtP. The present study suggests that Nem caused its anti-leishmanial action due to specific inhibition of complexes II/III of mitochondrial respiratory chain of Leishmania parasites that could be responsible for increased production of reactive oxygen species that triggers parasite death.
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Novel Arsenic Nanoparticles Are More Effective and Less Toxic than As (III) to Inhibit Extracellular and Intracellular Proliferation of Leishmania donovani. J Parasitol Res 2014; 2014:187640. [PMID: 25614827 PMCID: PMC4295593 DOI: 10.1155/2014/187640] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2014] [Revised: 11/21/2014] [Accepted: 11/24/2014] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Visceral leishmaniasis, a vector-borne tropical disease that is threatening about 350 million people worldwide, is caused by the protozoan parasite Leishmania donovani. Metalloids like arsenic and antimony have been used to treat diseases like leishmaniasis caused by the kinetoplastid parasites. Arsenic (III) at a relatively higher concentration (30 μg/mL) has been shown to have antileishmanial activity, but this concentration is reported to be toxic in several experimental mammalian systems. Nanosized metal (0) particles have been shown to be more effective than their higher oxidation state forms. There is no information so far regarding arsenic nanoparticles (As-NPs) as an antileishmanial agent. We have tested the antileishmanial properties of the As-NPs, developed for the first time in our laboratory. As-NPs inhibited the in vitro growth, oxygen consumption, infectivity, and intramacrophage proliferation of L. donovani parasites at a concentration which is about several fold lower than that of As (III). Moreover, this antileishmanial activity has comparatively less cytotoxic effect on the mouse macrophage cell line. It is evident from our findings that As-NPs have more potential than As (III) to be used as an antileishmanial agent.
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Duarte M, Tomás AM. The mitochondrial complex I of trypanosomatids--an overview of current knowledge. J Bioenerg Biomembr 2014; 46:299-311. [PMID: 24961227 DOI: 10.1007/s10863-014-9556-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2014] [Accepted: 06/17/2014] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
The contribution of trypanosomatid mitochondrial complex I for energy transduction has long been debated. Herein, we summarize current knowledge on the composition and relevance of this enzyme. Bioinformatic and proteomic analyses allowed the identification of many conserved and trypanosomatid-specific subunits of NADH:ubiquinone oxidoreductase, revealing a multifunctional enzyme capable of performing bioenergetic activities and possibly, also of functioning in fatty acid metabolism. A multimeric structure organized in 5 domains of more than 2 MDa is predicted, in contrast to the 1 MDa described for mammalian complex I. The relevance of mitochondrial complex I within the Trypanosomatidae family is quite diverse with its NADH oxidation activity being dispensable for both procyclic and bloodstream Trypanosoma brucei, whereas in Phytomonas serpens the enzyme is the only respiratory complex able to sustain membrane potential. Aside from complex I, trypanosomatid mitochondria contain a type II NADH dehydrogenase and a NADH-dependent fumarate reductase as alternative electron entry points into the respiratory chain and thus, some trypanosomatids may have bypassed the need for complex I. The involvement of each of these enzymes in the maintenance of the mitochondrial redox balance in trypanosomatids is still an open question and requires further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Margarida Duarte
- IBMC - Instituto de Biologia Molecular e Celular, Universidade do Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre 823, 4150-180, Porto, Portugal,
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The double-edged sword in pathogenic trypanosomatids: the pivotal role of mitochondria in oxidative stress and bioenergetics. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2014; 2014:614014. [PMID: 24800243 PMCID: PMC3988864 DOI: 10.1155/2014/614014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2013] [Accepted: 02/17/2014] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The pathogenic trypanosomatids Trypanosoma brucei, Trypanosoma cruzi, and Leishmania spp. are the causative agents of African trypanosomiasis, Chagas disease, and leishmaniasis, respectively. These diseases are considered to be neglected tropical illnesses that persist under conditions of poverty and are concentrated in impoverished populations in the developing world. Novel efficient and nontoxic drugs are urgently needed as substitutes for the currently limited chemotherapy. Trypanosomatids display a single mitochondrion with several peculiar features, such as the presence of different energetic and antioxidant enzymes and a specific arrangement of mitochondrial DNA (kinetoplast DNA). Due to mitochondrial differences between mammals and trypanosomatids, this organelle is an excellent candidate for drug intervention. Additionally, during trypanosomatids' life cycle, the shape and functional plasticity of their single mitochondrion undergo profound alterations, reflecting adaptation to different environments. In an uncoupling situation, the organelle produces high amounts of reactive oxygen species. However, these species role in parasite biology is still controversial, involving parasite death, cell signalling, or even proliferation. Novel perspectives on trypanosomatid-targeting chemotherapy could be developed based on better comprehension of mitochondrial oxidative regulation processes.
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Abstract
SIGNIFICANCE In the single mitochondrion of protozoan trypanosomatid parasites there are several sites for the generation and elimination of reactive oxygen species (ROS), a class of molecules that exhibit a dual role in cells, either as regulatory mediators or as cytotoxic effectors. RECENT ADVANCES Formation of ROS in trypanosomatid mitochondria can be induced by various drug compounds. Importantly, it can also be triggered by specific physiologic stimuli, indicating that this phenomenon may occur in living parasites as well. Elimination of ROS in these organelles is attributed to the activity of two iron-dependent superoxide dismutases (FeSODs) and up to three different peroxidases (a cytochrome c peroxidase and two thiol peroxidases). CRITICAL ISSUES Data regarding the formation of ROS in trypanosomatid mitochondria are limited and nonsystematic. Another critical issue refers to the exact contribution of mitochondrial FeSODs and peroxidases for ROS removal, given that their antioxidant activity is not essential when abrogated individually. This suggests some level of functional overlapping or that ROS produced in mitochondria under normal conditions can be removed noncatalytically. Also still unsolved is the mechanism by which mitochondrial thiol peroxidases are regenerated to their reduced (active) form. FUTURE DIRECTIONS The production of intramitochondrial ROS under physiologic conditions and their implication in parasite biology should be further clarified. The relative importance of enzymatic versus nonenzymatic mechanisms for ROS elimination in trypanosomatid mitochondria also requires investigation. Simultaneous depletion of several redundant antioxidant enzymes and determination of noncatalytic antioxidants are possible ways to achieve this.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana M Tomás
- IBMC-Instituto de Biologia Molecular e Celular, Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal.
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Voak AA, Gobalakrishnapillai V, Seifert K, Balczo E, Hu L, Hall BS, Wilkinson SR. An essential type I nitroreductase from Leishmania major can be used to activate leishmanicidal prodrugs. J Biol Chem 2013; 288:28466-76. [PMID: 23946481 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m113.494781] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Nitroaromatic prodrugs are used to treat a range of microbial infections with selectivity achieved by specific activation reactions. For trypanosomatid parasites, this is mediated by type I nitroreductases. Here, we demonstrate that the causative agent of leishmaniasis, Leishmania major, expresses an FMN-containing nitroreductase (LmNTR) that metabolizes a wide range of substrates, and based on electron donor and acceptor preferences, it may function as an NADH:quinone oxidoreductase. Using gene deletion approaches, we demonstrate that this activity is essential to L. major promastigotes, the parasite forms found in the insect vector. Intriguingly, LmNTR(+/-) heterozygote promastigote parasites could readily differentiate into infectious metacyclic cells but these were unable to establish infections in cultured mammalian cells and caused delayed pathology in mice. Furthermore, we exploit the LmNTR activity evaluating a library of nitrobenzylphosphoramide mustards using biochemical and phenotypic screens. We identify a subset of compounds that display significant growth inhibitory properties against the intracellular parasite form found in the mammalian hosts. The leishmanicidal activity was shown to be LmNTR-specific as the LmNTR(+/-) heterozygote promastigotes displayed resistance to the most potent mustards. We conclude that LmNTR can be targeted for drug development by exploiting its prodrug activating property or by designing specific inhibitors to block its endogenous function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew A Voak
- From the Queen Mary Pre-Clinical Drug Discovery Group, School of Biological and Chemical Sciences, Queen Mary University of London, Mile End Road, London E1 4NS, United Kingdom
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Mukherjee S, Sen Santara S, Das S, Bose M, Roy J, Adak S. NAD(P)H cytochrome b5 oxidoreductase deficiency in Leishmania major results in impaired linoleate synthesis followed by increased oxidative stress and cell death. J Biol Chem 2012; 287:34992-35003. [PMID: 22923617 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m112.389338] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
NAD(P)H cytochrome b(5) oxidoreductase (Ncb5or), comprising cytochrome b(5) and cytochrome b(5) reductase domains, is widely distributed in eukaryotic organisms. Although Ncb5or plays a crucial role in lipid metabolism of mice, so far no Ncb5or gene has been reported in the unicellular parasitic protozoa Leishmania species. We have cloned, expressed, and characterized Ncb5or gene from Leishmania major. Steady state catalysis and spectral studies show that NADH can quickly reduce the ferric state of the enzyme to the ferrous state and is able to donate an electron(s) to external acceptors. To elucidate its exact physiological role in Leishmania, we attempted to create NAD(P)H cytochrome b(5) oxidoreductase from L. major (LmNcb5or) knock-out mutants by targeted gene replacement technique. A free fatty acid profile in knock-out (KO) cells reveals marked deficiency in linoleate and linolenate when compared with wild type (WT) or overexpressing cells. KO culture has a higher percentage of dead cells compared with both WT and overexpressing cells. Increased O(2) uptake, uncoupling and ATP synthesis, and loss of mitochondrial membrane potential are evident in KO cells. Flow cytometric analysis reveals the presence of a higher concentration of intracellular H(2)O(2), indicative of increased oxidative stress in parasites lacking LmNcb5or. Cell death is significantly reduced when the KO cells are pretreated with BSA bound linoleate. Real time PCR studies demonstrate a higher Δ12 desaturase, superoxide dismutase, and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) mRNA with a concomitant fall in Δ9 desaturase mRNA expression in LmNcb5or null cell line. Together these findings suggest that decreased linoleate synthesis, and increased oxidative stress and apoptosis are the major consequences of LmNcb5or deficiency in Leishmania.
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Affiliation(s)
- Supratim Mukherjee
- Division of Structural Biology and Bioinformatics, Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, Indian Institute of Chemical Biology, 4, Raja S. C. Mullick Road, Kolkata 700 032, India
| | - Sumit Sen Santara
- Division of Structural Biology and Bioinformatics, Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, Indian Institute of Chemical Biology, 4, Raja S. C. Mullick Road, Kolkata 700 032, India
| | - Shantanabha Das
- Division of Structural Biology and Bioinformatics, Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, Indian Institute of Chemical Biology, 4, Raja S. C. Mullick Road, Kolkata 700 032, India
| | - Moumita Bose
- Division of Structural Biology and Bioinformatics, Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, Indian Institute of Chemical Biology, 4, Raja S. C. Mullick Road, Kolkata 700 032, India
| | - Jayasree Roy
- Division of Structural Biology and Bioinformatics, Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, Indian Institute of Chemical Biology, 4, Raja S. C. Mullick Road, Kolkata 700 032, India
| | - Subrata Adak
- Division of Structural Biology and Bioinformatics, Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, Indian Institute of Chemical Biology, 4, Raja S. C. Mullick Road, Kolkata 700 032, India.
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Mitochondria and Trypanosomatids: Targets and Drugs. Pharm Res 2011; 28:2758-70. [DOI: 10.1007/s11095-011-0586-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2011] [Accepted: 09/07/2011] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
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O2 consumption rates along the growth curve: new insights into Trypanosoma cruzi mitochondrial respiratory chain. J Bioenerg Biomembr 2011; 43:409-17. [DOI: 10.1007/s10863-011-9369-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2011] [Accepted: 06/09/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Duncan R, Gannavaram S, Dey R, Debrabant A, Lakhal-Naouar I, Nakhasi HL. Identification and characterization of genes involved in leishmania pathogenesis: the potential for drug target selection. Mol Biol Int 2011; 2011:428486. [PMID: 22091403 PMCID: PMC3200065 DOI: 10.4061/2011/428486] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2011] [Revised: 03/26/2011] [Accepted: 04/28/2011] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Identifying and characterizing Leishmania donovani genes and the proteins they encode for their role in pathogenesis can reveal the value of this approach for finding new drug targets. Effective drug targets are likely to be proteins differentially expressed or required in the amastigote life cycle stage found in the patient. Several examples and their potential for chemotherapeutic disruption are presented. A pathway nearly ubiquitous in living cells targeted by anticancer drugs, the ubiquitin system, is examined. New findings in ubiquitin and ubiquitin-like modifiers in Leishmania show how disruption of those pathways could point to additional drug targets. The programmed cell death pathway, now recognized among protozoan parasites, is reviewed for some of its components and evidence that suggests they could be targeted for antiparasitic drug therapy. Finally, the endoplasmic reticulum quality control system is involved in secretion of many virulence factors. How disruptions in this pathway reduce virulence as evidence for potential drug targets is presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert Duncan
- Division of Emerging and Transfusion Transmitted Diseases, Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research, FDA, Bethesda, MD 20852, USA
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Singh A, Mandal D. A novel sucrose/H+ symport system and an intracellular sucrase in Leishmania donovani. Int J Parasitol 2011; 41:817-26. [PMID: 21515279 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2011.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2010] [Revised: 02/09/2011] [Accepted: 03/01/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
The flagellated form of pathogenic parasitic protozoa Leishmania, resides in the alimentary tract of its sandfly vector, where sucrose serves as a major nutrient source. In this study we report the presence of a sucrose transport system in Leishmania donovani promastigotes. The kinetics of sucrose uptake in promastigotes are biphasic in nature with both high affinity K(m) (K(m) of ∼ 75 μM) and low affinity K(m) (K(m)∼ 1.38 mM) components. By contrast the virulent amastigotes take up sucrose via a low affinity process with a K(m) of 2.5mM. The transport of sucrose into promastigotes leads to rapid intracellular acidification, as indicated by changes in the fluorescence of the pH indicator 2',7'-bis-(2-carboxyethyl)-5-(6) Carboxyfluorescein (BCECF). In experiments with right side-out plasma membrane vesicles derived from L. donovani promastigotes, an artificial pH gradient was able to drive the active accumulation of sucrose. These data are consistent with the operation of a H(+)-sucrose symporter. The symporter was shown to be independent of Na(+) and to be insensitive to cytochalasin B, to the flavonoid phloretin and to the Na(+)/K(+) ATPase inhibitor ouabain. However, the protonophore carbonylcyanide P- (trifluromethoxy) phenylhydrazone (FCCP) and a number of thiol reagents caused significant inhibition of sucrose uptake. Evidence was also obtained for the presence of a stable intracellular pool of the sucrose splitting enzyme, sucrase, in promastigote stage parasites. The results are consistent with the hypothesis that L. donovani promastigotes take up sucrose via a novel H(+)-sucrose symport system and that, on entering the cell, the sucrose is hydrolysed to its component monosaccharides by an intracellular sucrase, thereby providing an energy source for the parasites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arpita Singh
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Indian Institute of Chemical Biology, West Bengal, India
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Dey R, Meneses C, Salotra P, Kamhawi S, Nakhasi HL, Duncan R. Characterization of a Leishmania stage-specific mitochondrial membrane protein that enhances the activity of cytochrome c oxidase and its role in virulence. Mol Microbiol 2010; 77:399-414. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2958.2010.07214.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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18
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Chakraborty B, Biswas S, Mondal S, Bera T. Stage specific developmental changes in the mitochondrial and surface membrane associated redox systems of Leishmania donovani promastigote and amastigote. BIOCHEMISTRY (MOSCOW) 2010; 75:494-518. [DOI: 10.1134/s0006297910040140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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19
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Nebohácová M, Kim CE, Simpson L, Maslov DA. RNA editing and mitochondrial activity in promastigotes and amastigotes of Leishmania donovani. Int J Parasitol 2008; 39:635-44. [PMID: 19109964 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2008.10.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2008] [Revised: 10/29/2008] [Accepted: 10/30/2008] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Kinetoplast maxicircle DNA sequence organisation was investigated in Leishmania donovani, strain 1S LdBob. Gene arrangement in the coding (conserved) region of the maxicircle is collinear with that of most trypanosomatids, with individual genes showing 80-90% nucleotide identity to Leishmania tarentolae, strain UC. The notable exception was an integration of a full-size minicircle sequence in the ND1 gene coding region found in L. donovani. Editing patterns of the mitochondrial mRNAs investigated also followed L. tarentolae UC patterns, including productive editing of the components of respiratory complexes III-V, and ribosomal protein S12 (RPS12), as well as the lack of productive editing in five out of six pan-edited cryptogenes (ND3, ND8, ND9, G3, G4) found in these species. Several guide RNAs for the editing events were localised in minicircles and maxicircles in the locations that are conserved between the species. Mitochondrial activity, including rates of oxygen consumption, the presence and the levels of respiratory complexes and their individual subunits and the steady-state levels of several mitochondrial-encoded mRNAs were essentially the same in axenically grown amastigotes and in promastigotes of L. donovani. However, some modulation of mitochondrial activity between these developmental stages was suggested by the finding of an amastigote-specific component in complex IV, a down-regulation of mitochondrial RNA-binding proteins (MRP) and MRP-associated protein (MRP-AP) in amastigotes, and by variations in the levels of RPS12, ND3, ND9, G3 and G4 pre-edited transcripts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martina Nebohácová
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Molecular Genetics, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
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Le Pape P. Development of new antileishmanial drugs – current knowledge and future prospects. J Enzyme Inhib Med Chem 2008; 23:708-18. [DOI: 10.1080/14756360802208137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Patrice Le Pape
- Département de Parasitologie et de Mycologie Médicale, Université de Nantes, Nantes Atlantique Universités, IICiMed UPRES EA 1155, UFR de Sciences Pharmaceutiques, 1 rue Gaston VeilNantes cedex 01F-44035, France
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21
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Lin YC, Hsu JY, Shu JH, Chi Y, Chiang SC, Lee ST. Two distinct arsenite-resistant variants of Leishmania amazonensis take different routes to achieve resistance as revealed by comparative transcriptomics. Mol Biochem Parasitol 2008; 162:16-31. [PMID: 18674569 DOI: 10.1016/j.molbiopara.2008.06.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2008] [Revised: 04/03/2008] [Accepted: 06/23/2008] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Genome-wide search for the genes involved in arsenite resistance in two distinct variants A and A' of Leishmania amazonensis revealed that the two variants used two different mechanisms to achieve resistance, even though these two variants were derived from the same clone and selected against arsenite under the same conditions. In variant A, the variant with DNA amplification, the biochemical pathways for detoxification of oxidative stress, the energy generation system to support the biochemical and physiological needs of the variant for DNA and protein synthesis and the arsenite translocating system to dispose arsenite are among the primary biochemical events that are upregulated under the arsenite stress to gain resistance. In variant A', the variant without DNA amplification, the upregulation of aquaglyceroporin (AQP) gene and the high level of resistance to arsenate point to the direction that the resistance gained by the variant is due to arsenate which is probably oxidized from arsenite in the arsenite solution used for selection and the maintenance of the cell culture. As a result of the AQP upregulation for arsenite disposal, a different set of biochemical pathways for detoxification of oxidative stress, energy generation and cellular signaling are upregulated to sustain the growth of the variant to gain resistance to arsenate. From current evidences, reactive oxygen species (ROS) overproduced by the parasite soon after exposure to arsenite appear to play an instrumental role in both variants to initiate the subsequent biochemical events that allow the same clone of L. amazonensis to take two totally different routes to diverge into two different variants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi-Chun Lin
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC
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22
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Oral Therapy with Amlodipine and Lacidipine, 1,4-Dihydropyridine Derivatives Showing Activity against Experimental Visceral Leishmaniasis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2007; 52:374-7. [PMID: 17954702 DOI: 10.1128/aac.00522-07] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Amlodipine and lacidipine, conventional antihypertensive drugs, inhibited Leishmania donovani infection in vitro and in BALB/c mice when administered orally. These 1,4-dihydropyridine derivatives functioned through dose-dependent inhibition of oxygen consumption, triggering caspase 3-like activation-mediated programmed cell death of the parasites.
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23
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Luque-Ortega JR, Martínez S, Saugar JM, Izquierdo LR, Abad T, Luis JG, Piñero J, Valladares B, Rivas L. Fungus-elicited metabolites from plants as an enriched source for new leishmanicidal agents: antifungal phenyl-phenalenone phytoalexins from the banana plant (Musa acuminata) target mitochondria of Leishmania donovani promastigotes. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2004; 48:1534-40. [PMID: 15105102 PMCID: PMC400542 DOI: 10.1128/aac.48.5.1534-1540.2004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Two antifungal phenyl-phenalenone phytoalexins isolated from the banana plant (Musa acuminata) elicited with the fungus Fusarium oxysporum, together with a methoxy derivative of one of them and two epoxide precursors of their chemical synthesis, were tested for leishmanicidal activity on Leishmania donovani promastigotes and L. infantum amastigotes. Drugs inhibited proliferation of both forms of the parasite with a 50% lethal concentration range between 10.3 and 68.7 micro g/ml. Their lethal mechanism was found linked to the respiratory chain by a systematic approach, including electron microscopy, measurement of the oxygen consumption rate on digitonin-permeabilized promastigotes, and enzymatic assays on a mitochondrial enriched fraction. Whereas the whole set of compounds inhibited the activity of fumarate reductase in the mitochondrial fraction (50% effective concentration [EC(50)] between 33.3 and 78.8 micro g/ml) and on purified enzyme (EC(50) = 53.3 to 115 micro g/ml), inhibition for succinate dehydrogenase was only observed for the two phytoalexins with the highest leishmanicidal activity: anigorufone and its natural analogue 2-methoxy-9-phenyl-phenalen-1-one (EC(50) = 33.5 and 59.6 micro g/ml, respectively). These results provided a new structural motif, phenyl-phenalenone, as a new lead for leishmanicidal activity, and support the use of plant extracts enriched in antifungal phytoalexins, synthesized under fungal challenge, as a more rational and effective strategy to screen for new plant leishmanicidal drugs.
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24
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Sen N, Das BB, Ganguly A, Mukherjee T, Tripathi G, Bandyopadhyay S, Rakshit S, Sen T, Majumder HK. Camptothecin induced mitochondrial dysfunction leading to programmed cell death in unicellular hemoflagellate Leishmania donovani. Cell Death Differ 2004; 11:924-36. [PMID: 15118764 DOI: 10.1038/sj.cdd.4401435] [Citation(s) in RCA: 187] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
The parasites of the order kinetoplastidae including Leishmania spp. emerge from most ancient phylogenic branches of unicellular eukaryotic lineages. In their life cycle, topoisomerase I plays a significant role in carrying out vital cellular processes. Camptothecin (CPT), an inhibitor of DNA topoisomerase I, induces programmed cell death (PCD) both in the amastigotes and promastigotes form of L. donovani parasites. CPT-induced cellular dysfunction in L. donovani promastigotes is characterized by several cytoplasmic and nuclear features of apoptosis. CPT inhibits cellular respiration that results in mitochondrial hyperpolarization taking place by oligomycin-sensitive F0-F1 ATPase-like protein in leishmanial cells. During the early phase of activation, there is an increase in reactive oxygen species (ROS) inside cells, which causes subsequent elevation in the level of lipid peroxidation and decrease in reducing equivalents like GSH. Endogenous ROS formation and lipid peroxidation cause eventual loss of mitochondrial membrane potential. Furthermore, cytochrome c is released into the cytosol in a manner independent of involvement of CED3/CPP32 group of proteases and unlike mammalian cells it is insensitive to cyclosporin A. These events are followed by activation of both CED3/CPP32 and ICE group of proteases in PCD of Leishmania. Taken together, our study indicates that different biochemical events leading to apoptosis in leishmanial cells provide information that could be exploited to develop newer potential therapeutic targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Sen
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Indian Institute of Chemical Biology. 4, Raja SC Mullick Road, Kolkata 700 032, India
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25
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Turrens JF. Oxidative stress and antioxidant defenses: a target for the treatment of diseases caused by parasitic protozoa. Mol Aspects Med 2004; 25:211-20. [PMID: 15051329 DOI: 10.1016/j.mam.2004.02.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 134] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Parasitic protozoa cause several diseases, affecting hundreds of millions, particularly in underdeveloped countries. Although these organisms are eukaryotic cells, some of them present major differences with their mammalian host in selected metabolic pathways. These differences may be exploited as targets for developing better pharmacological agents for the treatment of specific parasitic diseases. This review describes some of the differences in terms of antioxidant defenses between these organisms and their mammalian host, which may provide useful targets for the treatment of these diseases. Some of the potential targets are: (i). iron metabolism in Plasmodium, (ii). the presence of a Fe-containing form of superoxide dismutase in trypanosomatids and malaria-causing parasites, (iii). the unique trypanothione-dependent antioxidant metabolism in trypanosomatids, (iv). the ascorbate peroxidase found in Trypanosoma cruzi and perhaps present in other trypanosomatids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julio F Turrens
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Allied Health Professions, University of South Alabama, UCOM 6000, Mobile, AL 36695, USA.
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26
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Denicola A, Rubbo H, Haden L, Turrens JF. Extramitochondrial localization of NADH-fumarate reductase in trypanosomatids. Comp Biochem Physiol B Biochem Mol Biol 2002; 133:23-7. [PMID: 12223208 DOI: 10.1016/s1096-4959(02)00094-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Trypanosoma brucei procyclic trypomastigotes and T. cruzi epimastigotes (both Tulahuen and Y strains) were permeabilized by incubation with increasing amounts of digitonin, causing enzymes to be released from different intracellular compartments. After 10 min incubation with digitonin, the cells were centrifuged and the activity of marker enzymes (aspartate-dependent malic enzyme for cytoplasm, hexokinase for glycosomes and either isocitrate dehydrogenase or citrate synthase for mitochondria) was analyzed in the supernatant. The results were compared with the release of NADH-fumarate reductase in order to determine if this enzyme was preferentially released with a specific intracellular marker. Fumarate reductase was released at lower digitonin concentration than those required to either release isocitrate dehydrogenase or citrate synthase. Similarly, Leishmania donovani promastigotes (S-2 strain) were exposed to a single concentration of digitonin (200 micro M) but in this case we monitored the release of fumarate reductase and hexokinase, while monitoring the mitochondrial membrane potential (using safranine O). Again, substantial fumarate reductase and hexokinase activities were released without loss of mitochondrial membrane potential indicating that part of the enzyme was released while the inner mitochondrial membrane remained intact. These results suggest that, in the three species of trypanosomatids the enzyme fumarate reductase is, at least in part, located outside the mitochondrial matrix.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Denicola
- Laboratorio de Fisicoquímica Biológica, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de la República, Montevideo, Uruguay
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27
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Chen M, Zhai L, Christensen SB, Theander TG, Kharazmi A. Inhibition of fumarate reductase in Leishmania major and L. donovani by chalcones. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2001; 45:2023-9. [PMID: 11408218 PMCID: PMC90595 DOI: 10.1128/aac.45.7.2023-2029.2001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 141] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Our previous studies have shown that chalcones exhibit potent antileishmanial and antimalarial activities in vitro and in vivo. Preliminary studies showed that these compounds destroyed the ultrastructure of Leishmania parasite mitochondria and inhibited the respiration and the activity of mitochondrial dehydrogenases of Leishmania parasites. The present study was designed to further investigate the mechanism of action of chalcones, focusing on the parasite respiratory chain. The data show that licochalcone A inhibited the activity of fumarate reductase (FRD) in the permeabilized Leishmania major promastigote and in the parasite mitochondria, and it also inhibited solubilized FRD and a purified FRD from L. donovani. Two other chalcones, 2,4-dimethoxy-4'-allyloxychalcone (24m4ac) and 2,4-dimethoxy-4'-butoxychalcone (24mbc), also exhibited inhibitory effects on the activity of solubilized FRD in L. major promastigotes. Although licochalcone A inhibited the activities of succinate dehydrogenase (SDH), NADH dehydrogenase (NDH), and succinate- and NADH-cytochrome c reductases in the parasite mitochondria, the 50% inhibitory concentrations (IC(50)) of licochalcone A for these enzymes were at least 20 times higher than that for FRD. The IC(50) of licochalcone A for SDH and NDH in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells were at least 70 times higher than that for FRD. These findings indicate that FRD, one of the enzymes of the parasite respiratory chain, might be the specific target for the chalcones tested. Since FRD exists in the Leishmania parasite and does not exist in mammalian cells, it could be an excellent target for antiprotozoal drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Chen
- Centre for Medical Parasitology, Department of Clinical Microbiology, University Hospital of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark.
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28
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Inhibition of fumarate reductase in Leishmania major and L. donovani by chalcones. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2001. [PMID: 11408218 DOI: 10.1128/aac.45.7.2023-2029-2001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Our previous studies have shown that chalcones exhibit potent antileishmanial and antimalarial activities in vitro and in vivo. Preliminary studies showed that these compounds destroyed the ultrastructure of Leishmania parasite mitochondria and inhibited the respiration and the activity of mitochondrial dehydrogenases of Leishmania parasites. The present study was designed to further investigate the mechanism of action of chalcones, focusing on the parasite respiratory chain. The data show that licochalcone A inhibited the activity of fumarate reductase (FRD) in the permeabilized Leishmania major promastigote and in the parasite mitochondria, and it also inhibited solubilized FRD and a purified FRD from L. donovani. Two other chalcones, 2,4-dimethoxy-4'-allyloxychalcone (24m4ac) and 2,4-dimethoxy-4'-butoxychalcone (24mbc), also exhibited inhibitory effects on the activity of solubilized FRD in L. major promastigotes. Although licochalcone A inhibited the activities of succinate dehydrogenase (SDH), NADH dehydrogenase (NDH), and succinate- and NADH-cytochrome c reductases in the parasite mitochondria, the 50% inhibitory concentrations (IC(50)) of licochalcone A for these enzymes were at least 20 times higher than that for FRD. The IC(50) of licochalcone A for SDH and NDH in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells were at least 70 times higher than that for FRD. These findings indicate that FRD, one of the enzymes of the parasite respiratory chain, might be the specific target for the chalcones tested. Since FRD exists in the Leishmania parasite and does not exist in mammalian cells, it could be an excellent target for antiprotozoal drugs.
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Moreno-Sánchez R, Covián R, Jasso-Chávez R, Rodríguez-Enríquez S, Pacheco-Moisés F, Torres-Márquez ME. Oxidative phosphorylation supported by an alternative respiratory pathway in mitochondria from Euglena. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA 2000; 1457:200-10. [PMID: 10773165 DOI: 10.1016/s0005-2728(00)00102-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The effect of antimycin, myxothiazol, 2-heptyl-4-hydroxyquinoline-N-oxide, stigmatellin and cyanide on respiration, ATP synthesis, cytochrome c reductase, and membrane potential in mitochondria isolated from dark-grown Euglena cells was determined. With L-lactate as substrate, ATP synthesis was partially inhibited by antimycin, but the other four inhibitors completely abolished the process. Cyanide also inhibited the antimycin-resistant ATP synthesis. Membrane potential was collapsed (<60 mV) by cyanide and stigmatellin. However, in the presence of antimycin, a H(+)60 mV) that sufficed to drive ATP synthesis remained. Cytochrome c reductase, with L-lactate as donor, was diminished by antimycin and myxothiazol. Cytochrome bc(1) complex activity was fully inhibited by antimycin, but it was resistant to myxothiazol. Stigmatellin inhibited both L-lactate-dependent cytochrome c reductase and cytochrome bc(1) complex activities. Respiration was partially inhibited by the five inhibitors. The cyanide-resistant respiration was strongly inhibited by diphenylamine, n-propyl-gallate, salicylhydroxamic acid and disulfiram. Based on these results, a model of the respiratory chain of Euglena mitochondria is proposed, in which a quinol-cytochrome c oxidoreductase resistant to antimycin, and a quinol oxidase resistant to antimycin and cyanide are included.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Moreno-Sánchez
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Instituto Nacional de Cardiología, Juan Badiano # 1, Col. Sección XVI, Tlalpan, Mexico, Mexico.
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Christmas PB, Turrens JF. Separation of NADH-fumarate reductase and succinate dehydrogenase activities in Trypanosoma cruzi. FEMS Microbiol Lett 2000; 183:225-8. [PMID: 10675588 DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-6968.2000.tb08962.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
A recent review suggested that the activity of NADH-fumarate reductase from trypanosomatids could be catalyzed by succinate dehydrogenase working in reverse (Tielens and van Hellemond, Parasitol. Today 14, 265-271, 1999). The results reported in this study demonstrate that the two activities can easily be separated without any loss in either activity, suggesting that fumarate reductase and succinate dehydrogenase are separate enzymes.
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Affiliation(s)
- P B Christmas
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Allied Health Professions, UCOM 6000, University of South Alabama, Mobile, AL 36688, USA
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31
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Turrens J. More differences in energy metabolism between Trypanosomatidae. PARASITOLOGY TODAY (PERSONAL ED.) 1999; 15:346-8. [PMID: 10407385 DOI: 10.1016/s0169-4758(99)01479-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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32
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Obungu VH, Kiaira JK, Njogu RM, Olembo NK. Catabolism of proline by procyclic culture forms of Trypanosoma congolense. Comp Biochem Physiol B Biochem Mol Biol 1999; 123:59-65. [PMID: 10425713 DOI: 10.1016/s0305-0491(99)00040-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The effect of various metabolic inhibitors on the rate of oxygen consumption by procyclic culture forms of Trypanosoma congolense utilizing proline as substrate was investigated. Cyanide inhibited the rate of oxygen consumption by 81.0 +/- 6.7%, malonate inhibited the rate by 51.6 +/- 1.6% and Antimycin A by 73.1 +/- 5.9%. A combination of cyanide and malonate inhibited the rate of oxygen consumption by 84.9 +/- 6.7% while a combination of antimycin A and malonate inhibited the rate by 81.6 +/- 7.6%. Rotenone had no effect on the rate of respiration except when the intact cells were first permeabilized by digitonin after which rotenone decreased the rate of respiration by 20-30%. Salicylhydroxamate (SHAM) did not have any effect on the rate of oxygen consumption. Enzymes involved in the catabolism of proline with high activities were: proline dehydrogenase, alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase, succinate dehydrogenase, fumarase, NADP-linked malic enzyme, alanine aminotransferase and malate dehydrogenase. Activities of 1-pyrroline-5 carboxylate dehydrogenase, glutamate dehydrogenase, aspartate aminotransferase and NAD-linked malic enzyme were detectable but lower. The end products of proline catabolism were alanine and glutamate. Unlike the case in Trypanosoma brucei brucei aspartate was not detected. Possible pathways of proline catabolism in procyclic culture forms of T. congolense and of electron transfer are proposed.
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Affiliation(s)
- V H Obungu
- Department of Biochemistry, West Virginia University, Morgantown, USA.
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Maslov DA, Nawathean P, Scheel J. Partial kinetoplast-mitochondrial gene organization and expression in the respiratory deficient plant trypanosomatid Phytomonas serpens. Mol Biochem Parasitol 1999; 99:207-21. [PMID: 10340485 DOI: 10.1016/s0166-6851(99)00028-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
In plant-dwelling trypanosomatids from the genus Phytomonas, mitochondrial functions, such as cytochrome mediated respiration, ATP production and Krebs cycle, are missing, and cell energetics is based on the glycolysis. Using Blue Native/Tricine-SDS two-dimensional gel electrophoretic analysis, we observed that mitochondrial respiratory Complexes III (cytochrome bc1) and IV (cytochrome c oxidase) were absent in Phytomonas serpens; however, Complex V (ATPase) was present. A deletion of the genes for cytochrome c oxidase subunit III (COIII) and apocytochrome b (Cyb) was identified within the 6234 bp sequenced region of the 31 kb maxicircle kinetoplast DNA. Genes, found in this region, include 12S and 9S ribosomal RNAs, subunits 7, 8 and 9 of NADH dehydrogenase (ND7, ND8 and ND9) and subunit 6 of ATPase (A6 or MURF4), as well as the genes (MURF1, MURF5 and G3) with unknown function. Most genes are actively transcribed and some mRNAs are edited. Fully edited mRNAs for A6 and G3 were abundant, while edited ND7 transcripts were rare, and only partially edited and pre-edited transcripts for ND8 were detected. The data show that the mitochondrial genome of P. serpens is functional, although its functions may be limited to expressing the ATPase and, possibly, NADH dehydrogenase complexes.
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Affiliation(s)
- D A Maslov
- Department of Biology, University of California, Riverside 92521, USA.
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34
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Tielens AG, Van Hellemond JJ. Differences in Energy Metabolism Between Trypanosomatidae. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1998; 14:265-72. [PMID: 17040781 DOI: 10.1016/s0169-4758(98)01263-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 118] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Although various members of the family Trypanosomatidae generate energy in a similar way, fundamental differences also exist and are not always recognized. In this review, Louis Tielens and Jaap Van Hellemond discuss the known differences in carbohydrate metabolism among trypanosomatids, and especially compare Leishmania with trypanosomatids such as Trypanosoma brucei and Phytomonas spp. Special attention will be paid to differences in end-products of carbohydrate degradation, to differences in anaerobic capacities between the various trypanosomatids and to the components of their respiratory chains, including the presence or absence of a plant-like alternative oxidase. Furthermore, evidence will be discussed which indicates that the succinate produced by trypanosomatids is formed mainly via an oxidative pathway and not via reduction of fumarate, a process known to occur in parasitic helminths.
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Affiliation(s)
- A G Tielens
- Laboratory of Veterinary Biochemistry and Institute of Biomembranes, Utrecht University, PO Box 80176, 3508 TD Utrecht, The Netherlands
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35
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Van Hellemond JJ, Simons B, Millenaar FF, Tielens AG. A gene encoding the plant-like alternative oxidase is present in Phytomonas but absent in Leishmania spp. J Eukaryot Microbiol 1998; 45:426-30. [PMID: 9703678 DOI: 10.1111/j.1550-7408.1998.tb05094.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
The constituents of the respiratory chain are believed to differ among the trypanosomatids; bloodstream stages of African trypanosomes and Phytomonas promastigotes oxidize ubiquinol by a ubiquinol:oxygen oxidoreductase, also known as alternative oxidase, whereas Leishmania spp. oxidize ubiquinol via a classic cytochrome-containing respiratory chain. The molecular basis for this elementary difference in ubiquinol oxidation by the mitochondrial electron-transport chain in distinct trypanosomatids was investigated. The presence of a gene encoding the plant-like alternative oxidase could be demonstrated in Phytomonas and Trypanosoma brucei, trypanosomatids that are known to contain alternative oxidase activity. Our results further demonstrated that Leishmania spp. lack a gene encoding the plant-like alternative oxidase, and therefore, all stages of Leishmania spp. will lack the alternative oxidase protein. The observed fundamental differences between the respiratory chains of distinct members of the trypanosomatid family are thus caused by the presence or absence of a gene encoding the plant-like alternative oxidase.
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Affiliation(s)
- J J Van Hellemond
- Laboratory of Veterinary Biochemistry, Utrecht University, The Netherlands
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Alvarez-Fortes E, Ruiz-Pérez LM, Bouillaud F, Rial E, Rivas L. Expression and regulation of mitochondrial uncoupling protein 1 from brown adipose tissue in Leishmania major promastigotes. Mol Biochem Parasitol 1998; 93:191-202. [PMID: 9662704 DOI: 10.1016/s0166-6851(98)00029-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Rat uncoupling protein 1 (UCP1) was successfully translated in transfected Leishmania major promastigotes. Immune electron microscopy revealed that the protein was exclusively in the mitochondria. UCP1 expression was about 350,000 copies per promastigote, accounting for 4.7% of the total mitochondrial protein. In intact parasites, expression of UCP1 induced a slight increase in respiratory rate and a modest decrease in mitochondrial membrane potential (delta psi(m)). In contrast, in digitonin-permeabilized parasites, a significantly lower value both in delta psi(m) (57 +/- 10 vs 153 +/- 12 mV) and respiratory control ratio (0.99 vs 1.54) were observed for UCP1 versus control parasites, although when UCP1 activity was inhibited by bovine serum albumin (BSA) and GDP, control values were restored. Therefore, a fully functional UCP1 was present and only partially inhibited in vivo by endogenous purine nucleotides. However, neither ATP levels, growth rate nor mitochondrial protein import differed significantly between both types of parasites. Expression of the pore-like mutant UCP1 delta 9 was deleterious to the organism. Consequently, Leishmania was capable of expressing and importing into mitochondria proteins from higher eukaryotes lacking an N-terminal targeting pre-sequence as UCP1. As described previously, parasite metabolism had only a limited tolerance to mitochondrial disfunction. Transfection of Leishmania with foreign proteins which play an important regulatory role in metabolism is a useful tool to study both parasite metabolism in general, and alternative pathways involved in maintaining internal homeostasis.
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Hernandez FR, Turrens JF. Rotenone at high concentrations inhibits NADH-fumarate reductase and the mitochondrial respiratory chain of Trypanosoma brucei and T. cruzi. Mol Biochem Parasitol 1998; 93:135-7. [PMID: 9662035 DOI: 10.1016/s0166-6851(98)00015-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- F R Hernandez
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of South Alabama, Mobile 36688-0002, USA
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Bermúdez R, Dagger F, D'Aquino JA, Benaim G, Dawidowicz K. Characterization of mitochondrial electron-transfer in Leishmania mexicana. Mol Biochem Parasitol 1997; 90:43-54. [PMID: 9497031 DOI: 10.1016/s0166-6851(97)00131-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Some general features of the respiratory chain and respiratory control were characterized in coupled mitochondrial preparations from Leishmania mexicana promastigotes. O2 uptake was sensitive to the electron-transfer inhibitors rotenone, flavone, malonate, 4,4,4-trifluoro-1-(2-thienyl) 1.3 butanedione (TTFA), antimycin A, 2n-nonyl-4-hydroxyquinoline-N-oxide (HQNO), myxothiazol, cyanide and azide. A high concentration of rotenone (60 microM) was required to inhibit O2 uptake effectively. Difference spectra revealed the presence of cytochromes (a + a3), b and c. Respiratory control was stimulated 2-fold by ADP with different exogenous oxidizable substrates. Calculated ADP/O ratios were consistent with the notion that ascorbate/N,N,N',N'-tetramethylphenylenediamine (TMPD)-linked and FAD-linked respiration proceeds, respectively, with one third and two thirds of the ATP producing capacity of NADH-linked respiration. State 3 was suppressed by the ATP synthase inhibitors oligomycin and aurovertin and by the adenine nucleotide translocator inhibitors atractyloside and carboxy atractyloside. The protonophore carbonyl cyanide p-(trifluoromethoxy)phenylhydrazone (FCCP) provoked state 3u respiration. The mitochondrial preparation was capable of Ca2+ uptake and Ca2+ stimulated respiration. Data obtained suggests strongly that mitochondrial complexes I, II, III and IV are present in a major pathway of electron-transfer and that oxidative phosphorylation might proceed with high bioenergetic efficiency.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Bermúdez
- Instituto de Biología Experimental, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Central de Venezuela, Caracas
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Abstract
Differences between host and parasite energy metabolism are eagerly sought after as potential targets for antiparasite chemotherapy. In Kinetoplastia, the first seven steps of glycolysis are compartmented inside glycosomes, organelles that are related to the peroxisomes of higher eukaryotes. This arrangement is unique in the living world. In this review, Christine Clayton and Paul Michels discuss the implications of this unusual metabolic compartmentation for the regulation of trypanosome energy metabolism, and describe how an adequate supply of energy is maintained in different species and life cycle stages.
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Affiliation(s)
- C E Clayton
- Zentrum für Molekulare Biologie, Universität Heidelberg, Im Neuenheimer Feld 282, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany.
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