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Rohman A, Dijkstra BW. Application of microbial 3-ketosteroid Δ 1-dehydrogenases in biotechnology. Biotechnol Adv 2021; 49:107751. [PMID: 33823268 DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2021.107751] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2020] [Revised: 03/27/2021] [Accepted: 04/02/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
3-Ketosteroid Δ1-dehydrogenase catalyzes the 1(2)-dehydrogenation of 3-ketosteroid substrates using flavin adenine dinucleotide as a cofactor. The enzyme plays a crucial role in microbial steroid degradation, both under aerobic and anaerobic conditions, by initiating the opening of the steroid nucleus. Indeed, many microorganisms are known to possess one or more 3-ketosteroid Δ1-dehydrogenases. In the pharmaceutical industry, 3-ketosteroid Δ1-dehydrogenase activity is exploited to produce Δ1-3-ketosteroids, a class of steroids that display various biological activities. Many of them are used as active pharmaceutical ingredients in drug products, or as key precursors to produce pharmaceutically important steroids. Since 3-ketosteroid Δ1-dehydrogenase activity requires electron acceptors, among other considerations, Δ1-3-ketosteroid production has been industrially implemented using whole-cell fermentation with growing or metabolically active resting cells, in which the electron acceptors are available, rather than using the isolated enzyme. In this review we discuss biotechnological applications of microbial 3-ketosteroid Δ1-dehydrogenases, covering commonly used steroid-1(2)-dehydrogenating microorganisms, the bioprocess for preparing Δ1-3-ketosteroids, genetic engineering of 3-ketosteroid Δ1-dehydrogenases and related genes for constructing new, productive industrial strains, and microbial fermentation strategies for enhancing the product yield. Furthermore, we also highlight the recent development in the use of isolated 3-ketosteroid Δ1-dehydrogenases combined with a FAD cofactor regeneration system. Finally, in a somewhat different context, we summarize the role of 3-ketosteroid Δ1-dehydrogenase in cholesterol degradation by Mycobacterium tuberculosis and other mycobacteria. Because the enzyme is essential for the pathogenicity of these organisms, it may be a potential target for drug development to combat mycobacterial infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ali Rohman
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science and Technology, Universitas Airlangga, Surabaya 60115, Indonesia; Laboratory of Proteomics, Research Center for Bio-Molecule Engineering (BIOME), Universitas Airlangga, Surabaya 60115, Indonesia; Laboratory of Biophysical Chemistry, University of Groningen, 9747 AG Groningen, the Netherlands.
| | - Bauke W Dijkstra
- Laboratory of Biophysical Chemistry, University of Groningen, 9747 AG Groningen, the Netherlands.
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Luo JM, Cui HL, Jia HC, Li F, Cheng HJ, Shen YB, Wang M. Identification, Biological Characteristics, and Active Site Residues of 3-Ketosteroid Δ 1-Dehydrogenase Homologues from Arthrobacter simplex. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2020; 68:9496-9512. [PMID: 32786835 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.0c03360] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
3-Ketosteroid Δ1-dehydrogenase (KsdD) is the key enzyme responsible for Δ1-dehydrogenation, which is one of the most valuable reactions for steroid catabolism. Arthrobacter simplex has been widely used in the industry due to its superior bioconversion efficiency, but KsdD information is not yet fully clear. Here, five KsdD homologues were identified in A. simplex CGMCC 14539. Bioinformatic analysis indicated their distinct properties and structures. Each KsdD was functionally confirmed by transcriptional response, overexpression, and heterologous expression. The substantial difference in substrate profiles might be related to the enzyme loop structure. Two promising enzymes (KsdD3 and KsdD5) were purified and characterized, exhibiting strong organic solvent tolerance and clear preference for 4-ene-3-oxosteroids. KsdD5 seemed to be more versatile due to good activity on substrates with or without a substituent at C11 and high optimal temperature and also possessed unique residues. It is the first time that KsdDs have been comprehensively disclosed in the A. simplex industrial strain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian-Mei Luo
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Fermentation Microbiology (Tianjin University of Science & Technology), Ministry of Education, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Industrial Microbiology, Tianjin Engineering Research Center of Microbial Metabolism and Fermentation Process Control, College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, 89 P.O. Box, No. 29, Street No. 13, Tianjin Economic-Technological Development Area (TEDA), Tianjin 30057, P. R. China
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Molecular Microbiology and Technology, Nankai University, Tianjin 300071, P. R. China
| | - Hui-Lin Cui
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Fermentation Microbiology (Tianjin University of Science & Technology), Ministry of Education, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Industrial Microbiology, Tianjin Engineering Research Center of Microbial Metabolism and Fermentation Process Control, College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, 89 P.O. Box, No. 29, Street No. 13, Tianjin Economic-Technological Development Area (TEDA), Tianjin 30057, P. R. China
| | - Hong-Chen Jia
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Fermentation Microbiology (Tianjin University of Science & Technology), Ministry of Education, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Industrial Microbiology, Tianjin Engineering Research Center of Microbial Metabolism and Fermentation Process Control, College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, 89 P.O. Box, No. 29, Street No. 13, Tianjin Economic-Technological Development Area (TEDA), Tianjin 30057, P. R. China
| | - Fang Li
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Fermentation Microbiology (Tianjin University of Science & Technology), Ministry of Education, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Industrial Microbiology, Tianjin Engineering Research Center of Microbial Metabolism and Fermentation Process Control, College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, 89 P.O. Box, No. 29, Street No. 13, Tianjin Economic-Technological Development Area (TEDA), Tianjin 30057, P. R. China
| | - Hong-Jin Cheng
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Fermentation Microbiology (Tianjin University of Science & Technology), Ministry of Education, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Industrial Microbiology, Tianjin Engineering Research Center of Microbial Metabolism and Fermentation Process Control, College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, 89 P.O. Box, No. 29, Street No. 13, Tianjin Economic-Technological Development Area (TEDA), Tianjin 30057, P. R. China
| | - Yan-Bing Shen
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Fermentation Microbiology (Tianjin University of Science & Technology), Ministry of Education, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Industrial Microbiology, Tianjin Engineering Research Center of Microbial Metabolism and Fermentation Process Control, College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, 89 P.O. Box, No. 29, Street No. 13, Tianjin Economic-Technological Development Area (TEDA), Tianjin 30057, P. R. China
| | - Min Wang
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Fermentation Microbiology (Tianjin University of Science & Technology), Ministry of Education, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Industrial Microbiology, Tianjin Engineering Research Center of Microbial Metabolism and Fermentation Process Control, College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, 89 P.O. Box, No. 29, Street No. 13, Tianjin Economic-Technological Development Area (TEDA), Tianjin 30057, P. R. China
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3
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Guevara G, Olortegui Flores Y, Fernández de las Heras L, Perera J, Navarro Llorens JM. Metabolic engineering of Rhodococcus ruber Chol-4: A cell factory for testosterone production. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0220492. [PMID: 31348804 PMCID: PMC6660089 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0220492] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2019] [Accepted: 07/17/2019] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Rhodococcus ruber Chol-4 is a potent steroid degrader that has a great potential as a biotechnological tool. As proof of concept, this work presents testosterone production from 4-androstene-3,17-dione by tailoring innate catabolic enzymes of the steroid catabolism inside the strain. A R. ruber quadruple mutant was constructed in order to avoid the breakage of the steroid nucleus. At the same time, an inducible expression vector for this strain was developed. The 17-ketoreductase gene from the fungus Cochliobolus lunatus was cloned and overexpressed in this vector. The engineered strain was able to produce testosterone from 4-androstene-3,17-dione using glucose for cofactor regeneration with a molar conversion of 61%. It is important to note that 91% of the testosterone was secreted outside the cell after 3 days of cell biotransformation. The results support the idea that Rhodococcus ruber Chol-4 can be metabolically engineered and can be used for the production of steroid intermediates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Govinda Guevara
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Facultad de CC, Biológicas, C/Jose Antonio Novais, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Yamileth Olortegui Flores
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Facultad de CC, Biológicas, C/Jose Antonio Novais, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Laura Fernández de las Heras
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Facultad de CC, Biológicas, C/Jose Antonio Novais, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Julián Perera
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Facultad de CC, Biológicas, C/Jose Antonio Novais, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Juana María Navarro Llorens
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Facultad de CC, Biológicas, C/Jose Antonio Novais, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
- * E-mail:
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Mao S, Wang JW, Liu F, Zhu Z, Gao D, Guo Q, Xu P, Ma Z, Hou Y, Cheng X, Sun D, Lu F, Qin HM. Engineering of 3-ketosteroid-∆ 1-dehydrogenase based site-directed saturation mutagenesis for efficient biotransformation of steroidal substrates. Microb Cell Fact 2018; 17:141. [PMID: 30200975 PMCID: PMC6130075 DOI: 10.1186/s12934-018-0981-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2018] [Accepted: 08/24/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Biosynthesis of steroidal drugs is of great benefit in pharmaceutical manufacturing as the process involves efficient enzymatic catalysis at ambient temperature and atmospheric pressure compared to chemical synthesis. 3-ketosteroid-∆1-dehydrogenase from Arthrobacter simplex (KsdD3) catalyzes 1,2-desaturation of steroidal substrates with FAD as a cofactor. Results Recombinant KsdD3 exhibited organic solvent tolerance. W117, F296, W299, et al., which were located in substrate-binding cavity, were predicted to form hydrophobic interaction with the substrate. Structure-based site-directed saturation mutagenesis of KsdD3 was performed with W299 mutants, which resulted in improved catalytic activities toward various steroidal substrates. W299A showed the highest increase in catalytic efficiency (kcat/Km) compared with the wild-type enzyme. Homology modelling revealed that the mutants enlarged the active site cavity and relieved the steric interference facilitating recognition of C17 hydroxyl/carbonyl steroidal substrates. Steered molecular dynamics simulations revealed that W299A/G decreased the potential energy barrier of association of substrates and dissociation of the corresponding products. The biotransformation of AD with enzymatic catalysis and resting cells harbouring KsdD3 WT/mutants revealed that W299A catalyzed the maximum ADD yields of 71 and 95% by enzymatic catalysis and resting cell conversion respectively, compared with the wild type (38 and 75%, respectively). Conclusions The successful rational design of functional KsdD3 greatly advanced our understanding of KsdD family enzymes. Structure-based site-directed saturation mutagenesis and biochemical data were used to design KsdD3 mutants with a higher catalytic activity and broader selectivity. ![]() Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s12934-018-0981-0) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuhong Mao
- State Key Laboratory of Food Nutrition and Safety, Tianjin, People's Republic of China.,Key Laboratory of Industrial Fermentation Microbiology, Ministry of Education, Tianjin, People's Republic of China.,Tianjin Key Laboratory of Industrial Microbiology, Tianjin, People's Republic of China.,College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin, People's Republic of China
| | - Jian-Wen Wang
- College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin, People's Republic of China
| | - Fufeng Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Food Nutrition and Safety, Tianjin, People's Republic of China.,Key Laboratory of Industrial Fermentation Microbiology, Ministry of Education, Tianjin, People's Republic of China.,Tianjin Key Laboratory of Industrial Microbiology, Tianjin, People's Republic of China.,College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhangliang Zhu
- College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin, People's Republic of China
| | - Dengke Gao
- College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin, People's Republic of China
| | - Qianqian Guo
- College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin, People's Republic of China
| | - Panpan Xu
- College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin, People's Republic of China
| | - Zheng Ma
- College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin, People's Republic of China
| | - Yali Hou
- College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiaotao Cheng
- College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin, People's Republic of China
| | - Dengyue Sun
- College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin, People's Republic of China
| | - Fuping Lu
- State Key Laboratory of Food Nutrition and Safety, Tianjin, People's Republic of China. .,Key Laboratory of Industrial Fermentation Microbiology, Ministry of Education, Tianjin, People's Republic of China. .,Tianjin Key Laboratory of Industrial Microbiology, Tianjin, People's Republic of China. .,College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin, People's Republic of China. .,National Engineering Laboratory for Industrial Enzymes, Tianjin, 300457, People's Republic of China.
| | - Hui-Min Qin
- State Key Laboratory of Food Nutrition and Safety, Tianjin, People's Republic of China. .,Key Laboratory of Industrial Fermentation Microbiology, Ministry of Education, Tianjin, People's Republic of China. .,Tianjin Key Laboratory of Industrial Microbiology, Tianjin, People's Republic of China. .,College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin, People's Republic of China. .,National Engineering Laboratory for Industrial Enzymes, Tianjin, 300457, People's Republic of China.
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5
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Wang X, Feng J, Zhang D, Wu Q, Zhu D, Ma Y. Characterization of new recombinant 3-ketosteroid-Δ1-dehydrogenases for the biotransformation of steroids. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2017. [DOI: 10.1007/s00253-017-8378-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
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Guevara G, Fernández de Las Heras L, Perera J, Navarro Llorens JM. Functional differentiation of 3-ketosteroid Δ 1-dehydrogenase isozymes in Rhodococcus ruber strain Chol-4. Microb Cell Fact 2017; 16:42. [PMID: 28288625 PMCID: PMC5348764 DOI: 10.1186/s12934-017-0657-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2016] [Accepted: 03/07/2017] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The Rhodococcus ruber strain Chol-4 genome contains at least three putative 3-ketosteroid Δ1-dehydrogenase ORFs (kstD1, kstD2 and kstD3) that code for flavoenzymes involved in the steroid ring degradation. The aim of this work is the functional characterization of these enzymes prior to the developing of different biotechnological applications. Results The three R. ruber KstD enzymes have different substrate profiles. KstD1 shows preference for 9OHAD and testosterone, followed by progesterone, deoxy corticosterone AD and, finally, 4-BNC, corticosterone and 19OHAD. KstD2 shows maximum preference for progesterone followed by 5α-Tes, DOC, AD testosterone, 4-BNC and lastly 19OHAD, corticosterone and 9OHAD. KstD3 preference is for saturated steroid substrates (5α-Tes) followed by progesterone and DOC. A preliminary attempt to model the catalytic pocket of the KstD proteins revealed some structural differences probably related to their catalytic differences. The expression of kstD genes has been studied by RT-PCR and RT-qPCR. All the kstD genes are transcribed under all the conditions assayed, although an additional induction in cholesterol and AD could be observed for kstD1 and in cholesterol for kstD3. Co-transcription of some correlative genes could be stated. The transcription initiation signals have been searched, both in silico and in vivo. Putative promoters in the intergenic regions upstream the kstD1, kstD2 and kstD3 genes were identified and probed in an apramycin-promoter-test vector, leading to the functional evidence of those R. ruber kstD promoters. Conclusions At least three putative 3-ketosteroid Δ1-dehydrogenase ORFs (kstD1, kstD2 and kstD3) have been identified and functionally confirmed in R. ruber strain Chol-4. KstD1 and KstD2 display a wide range of substrate preferences regarding to well-known intermediaries of the cholesterol degradation pathway (9OHAD and AD) and other steroid compounds. KstD3 shows a narrower substrate range with a preference for saturated substrates. KstDs differences in their catalytic properties was somehow related to structural differences revealed by a preliminary structural modelling. Transcription of R. ruber kstD genes is driven from specific promoters. The three genes are constitutively transcribed, although an additional induction is observed in kstD1 and kstD3. These enzymes have a wide versatility and allow a fine tuning-up of the KstD cellular activity. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12934-017-0657-1) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Govinda Guevara
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology I, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, 28040, Madrid, Spain
| | - Laura Fernández de Las Heras
- Faculty of Science and Engineering, Microbial Physiology-Gron Inst Biomolecular Sciences & Biotechnology, Nijenborgh 7, 9747 AG, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Julián Perera
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology I, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, 28040, Madrid, Spain
| | - Juana María Navarro Llorens
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology I, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, 28040, Madrid, Spain.
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3-Ketosteroid 9α-hydroxylase enzymes: Rieske non-heme monooxygenases essential for bacterial steroid degradation. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek 2014; 106:157-72. [PMID: 24846050 PMCID: PMC4064121 DOI: 10.1007/s10482-014-0188-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2014] [Accepted: 04/25/2014] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Various micro-organisms are able to use sterols/steroids as carbon- and energy sources for growth. 3-Ketosteroid 9α-hydroxylase (KSH), a two component Rieske non-heme monooxygenase comprised of the oxygenase KshA and the reductase KshB, is a key-enzyme in bacterial steroid degradation. It initiates opening of the steroid polycyclic ring structure. The enzyme has industrial relevance in the synthesis of pharmaceutical steroids. Deletion of KSH activity in sterol degrading bacteria results in blockage of steroid ring opening and is used to produce valuable C19-steroids such as 4-androstene-3,17-dione and 1,4-androstadiene-3,17-dione. Interestingly, KSH activity is essential for the pathogenicity of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Detailed information about KSH thus is of medical relevance, and KSH inhibitory compounds may find application in combatting tuberculosis. In recent years, the 3D structure of the KshA protein of M. tuberculosis H37Rv has been elucidated and various studies report biochemical characteristics and possible physiological roles of KSH. The current knowledge is reviewed here and forms a solid basis for further studies on this highly interesting enzyme. Future work may result in the construction of KSH mutants capable of production of specific bioactive steroids. Furthermore, KSH provides an promising target for drugs against the pathogenic agent M. tuberculosis.
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Fernández de las Heras L, van der Geize R, Drzyzga O, Perera J, María Navarro Llorens J. Molecular characterization of three 3-ketosteroid-Δ(1)-dehydrogenase isoenzymes of Rhodococcus ruber strain Chol-4. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2012; 132:271-81. [PMID: 22771584 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2012.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2012] [Revised: 06/11/2012] [Accepted: 06/24/2012] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Rhodococcus ruber strain Chol-4 isolated from a sewage sludge sample is able to grow on minimal medium supplemented with steroids, showing a broad catabolic capacity. This paper reports the characterization of three different 3-ketosteroid-Δ(1)-dehydrogenases (KstDs) in the genome of R. ruber strain Chol-4. The genome of this strain does not contain any homologues of a 3-keto-5α-steroid-Δ(4)-dehydrogenase (Kst4d or TesI) that appears in the genomes of Rhodococcus erythropolis SQ1 or Comamonas testosteroni. Growth experiments with kstD2 mutants, either a kstD2 single mutant, kstD2 double mutants in combination with kstD1 or kstD3, or the triple kstD1,2,3 mutant, proved that KstD2 is involved in the transformation of 4-androstene-3,17-dione (AD) to 1,4-androstadiene-3,17-dione (ADD) and in the conversion of 9α-hydroxy-4-androstene-3,17-dione (9OHAD) to 9α-hydroxy-1,4-androstadiene-3,17-dione (9OHADD). kstD2,3 and kstD1,2,3 R. ruber mutants (both lacking KstD2 and KstD3) did not grow in minimal medium with cholesterol as the only carbon source, thus demonstrating the involvement of KstD2 and KstD3 in cholesterol degradation. In contrast, mutation of kstD1 does not alter the bacterial growth on the steroids tested in this study and therefore, the role of this protein still remains unclear. The absence of a functional KstD2 in R. ruber mutants provoked in all cases an accumulation of 9OHAD, as a branch product probably formed by the action of a 3-ketosteroid-9α-hydroxylase (KshAB) on the AD molecule. Therefore, KstD2 is a key enzyme in the AD catabolism pathway of R. ruber strain Chol-4 while KstD3 is involved in cholesterol catabolism.
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Ouellet H, Johnston JB, de Montellano PRO. Cholesterol catabolism as a therapeutic target in Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Trends Microbiol 2011; 19:530-9. [PMID: 21924910 DOI: 10.1016/j.tim.2011.07.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 145] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2011] [Revised: 07/20/2011] [Accepted: 07/29/2011] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) is an intracellular pathogen that infects 10 million people worldwide and kills 2 million people every year. The uptake and utilization of nutrients by Mtb within the host cell is still poorly understood, although lipids play an important role in Mtb persistence. The recent identification of a large regulon of cholesterol catabolic genes suggests that Mtb can use host sterol for infection and persistence. In this review, we report on recent progress in elucidation of the Mtb cholesterol catabolic reactions and their potential utility as targets for tuberculosis therapeutic agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hugues Ouellet
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of California at San Francisco, Genentech Hall, N572D, 600 16th Street, San Francisco, CA 94158-2517, USA
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Biosynthesis of ursolic acid derivatives by microbial metabolism of ursolic acid with Nocardia sp. strains—Proposal of new biosynthetic pathways. Process Biochem 2010. [DOI: 10.1016/j.procbio.2010.03.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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3-Keto-5α-steroid Δ1-dehydrogenase from Rhodococcus erythropolis SQ1 and its orthologue in Mycobacterium tuberculosis H37Rv are highly specific enzymes that function in cholesterol catabolism. Biochem J 2008; 410:339-46. [DOI: 10.1042/bj20071130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The Rhodococcus erythropolis SQ1 kstD3 gene was cloned, heterologously expressed and biochemically characterized as a KSTD3 (3-keto-5α-steroid Δ1-dehydrogenase). Upstream of kstD3, an ORF (open reading frame) with similarity to Δ4 KSTD (3-keto-5α-steroid Δ4-dehydrogenase) was found, tentatively designated kst4D. Biochemical analysis revealed that the Δ1 KSTD3 has a clear preference for 3-ketosteroids with a saturated A-ring, displaying highest activity on 5α-AD (5α-androstane-3,17-dione) and 5α-T (5α-testosterone; also known as 17β-hydroxy-5α-androstane-3-one). The KSTD1 and KSTD2 enzymes, on the other hand, clearly prefer (9α-hydroxy-)4-androstene-3,17-dione as substrates. Phylogenetic analysis of known and putative KSTD amino acid sequences showed that the R. erythropolis KSTD proteins cluster into four distinct groups. Interestingly, Δ1 KSTD3 from R. erythropolis SQ1 clustered with Rv3537, the only Δ1 KSTD present in Mycobacterium tuberculosis H37Rv, a protein involved in cholesterol catabolism and pathogenicity. The substrate range of heterologously expressed Rv3537 enzyme was nearly identical with that of Δ1 KSTD3, indicating that these are orthologous enzymes. The results imply that 5α-AD and 5α-T are newly identified intermediates in the cholesterol catabolic pathway, and important steroids with respect to pathogenicity.
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Sukhodolskaya GV, Nikolayeva VM, Khomutov SM, Donova MV. Steroid-1-dehydrogenase of Mycobacterium sp. VKM Ac-1817D strain producing 9α-hydroxy-androst-4-ene-3,17-dione from sitosterol. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2007; 74:867-73. [PMID: 17136536 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-006-0728-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2006] [Revised: 10/13/2006] [Accepted: 10/17/2006] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
The strain of Mycobacterium sp. VKM Ac-1817D forms 9alpha-hydroxy-androst-4-ene-3,17-dione (9-OH-AD) as a major product from sitosterol. The formation of 9-OH-AD was accompanied with its partial destruction due to residual steroid-1-dehydrogenase (St1DH) activity. The activity was found to be induced by androst-4-ene-3,17-dione (AD), while other intermediates of sitosterol oxidation did not influence 1(2)-dehydrogenation. The enzyme is located mainly in the cytosolic fraction. The cytosolic St1DH (dimer, M (r) approximately 58 kDa) was partially purified by ammonium sulfate fractionation, ion-exchange chromatography on DEAE-Sepharose and Phenyl-Sepharose, and gel filtration on Bio-Gel A-0.5M. It expressed the St1DH activity toward both AD and 9-OH-AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- G V Sukhodolskaya
- G.K. Skryabin Institute of Biochemistry and Physiology of Microorganisms, Russian Academy of Sciences, 142290, Pushchino, Moscow Region, Russia
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14
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Choi KP, Molnár I, Murooka Y. Secretory overproduction of Arthrobacter simplex 3-ketosteroid delta 1-dehydrogenase by Streptomyces lividans with a multi-copy shuttle vector. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 1995; 43:1044-9. [PMID: 8590655 DOI: 10.1007/bf00166923] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
The gene for 3-ketosteroid delta 1-dehydrogenase (ksdD) of Arthrobacter simplex was expressed in Streptomyces lividans and the secreted enzyme was overproduced by using a multi-copy shuttle vector composed of pIJ702 and pUC19. Deletional analysis of the recombinant plasmid showed that the entire coding sequence of the ksdD gene was located within a 7-kb segment of the chromosomal DNA obtained from the enzyme-producing strain of A. simplex. When S. lividans carrying the recombinant plasmid was grown in an appropriate medium, the cells produced about 100-fold more 3-ketosteroid delta 1-dehydrogenase than the original strain. Although the percentage of enzyme secreted was changed during cultivation, a maximum 55% of the enzyme was secreted into the cultured medium of S. lividans, while A. simplex did not produce the enzyme extracellularly. Secretory overproduction of 3-ketosteroid delta 1-dehydrogenase in S. lividans was also identified by sodium dodecyl sulfate/polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and on native gel, and the enzyme reaction was confirmed by reverse-phase HPLC using 4-androstene-3,17-dione as a substrate.
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Affiliation(s)
- K P Choi
- Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Engineering, Osaka University, Japan
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Molnár I, Choi KP, Yamashita M, Murooka Y. Molecular cloning, expression in Streptomyces lividans, and analysis of a gene cluster from Arthrobacter simplex encoding 3-ketosteroid-delta 1-dehydrogenase, 3-ketosteroid-delta 5-isomerase and a hypothetical regulatory protein. Mol Microbiol 1995; 15:895-905. [PMID: 7596291 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2958.1995.tb02359.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
The Arthrobacter simplex gene coding for 3-ketosteroid-delta 1-dehydrogenase, a key enzyme in the degradation of the steroid nucleus, was cloned in Streptomyces lividans. Nucleotide sequence analysis revealed that the gene for 3-ketosteroid-delta 1-dehydrogenase (ksdD) is clustered with at least two more genes possibly involved in steroid metabolism. Upstream of ksdD, we found a gene, ksdR, encoding a hypothetical regulatory protein that shows homologies to KdgR, the negative regulator of pectin biodegradation in Erwinia, and GyIR, the activator for glycerol metabolism in Steptomyces. A helix-turn-helix DNA-binding domain can be predicted at similar positions near the N-terminal of KsdR, KdgR and GyIR. ksdl adjoining downstream to ksdD codes for a protein that has strong similarities to 3-ketosteroid-delta 5-isomerases. The highly conserved Tyr and Asp residues are present in the active-centre motif of the enzyme. The translated ksdD gene product was found to be similar to the 3-ketosteroid-delta 1-dehydrogenase of Pseudomonas testosteroni and to the fumarate reductase of Shewanella putrefaciens. A region highly conserved between the two steroid dehydrogenases can be aligned to the active-centre motif of the fumarate reductase. S. lividans strains carrying the ksdD gene overexpressed 3-ketosteroid-delta 1-dehydrogenase. The expression of 3-ketosteroid-delta 5-isomerase, however, was barely detectable in recombinant S. lividans strains carrying the ksdl gene, or in the parental Arthrobacter strain.
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Affiliation(s)
- I Molnár
- Department of Fermentation Technology, Faculty of Engineering, Hiroshima University, Japan
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Kaufmann G, Thole H, Kraft R, Atrat P. Steroid-1-dehydrogenase of Rhodococcus erythropolis: purification and N-terminal amino acid sequence. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 1992; 43:297-301. [PMID: 1390281 DOI: 10.1016/0960-0760(92)90164-e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
The inducible steroid-1-dehydrogenase from the bacterium Rhodococcus erythropolis IMET 7030 was purified to homogeneity using affinity chromatographic, electrophoretic, and ion exchange techniques. The spectrum of the pure enzyme is characterized by the associated FAD. The M(r) of the enzyme is 56,000. The amino acid composition and the sequence of the 13 N-terminal amino acids are given.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Kaufmann
- Institute of Microbiology and Experimental Therapy, Jena, Germany
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