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Bastos PAD, Wheeler R, Boneca IG. Uptake, recognition and responses to peptidoglycan in the mammalian host. FEMS Microbiol Rev 2021; 45:5902851. [PMID: 32897324 PMCID: PMC7794044 DOI: 10.1093/femsre/fuaa044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2020] [Accepted: 09/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Microbiota, and the plethora of signalling molecules that they generate, are a major driving force that underlies a striking range of inter-individual physioanatomic and behavioural consequences for the host organism. Among the bacterial effectors, one finds peptidoglycan, the major constituent of the bacterial cell surface. In the steady-state, fragments of peptidoglycan are constitutively liberated from bacterial members of the gut microbiota, cross the gut epithelial barrier and enter the host system. The fate of these peptidoglycan fragments, and the outcome for the host, depends on the molecular nature of the peptidoglycan, as well the cellular profile of the recipient tissue, mechanism of cell entry, the expression of specific processing and recognition mechanisms by the cell, and the local immune context. At the target level, physiological processes modulated by peptidoglycan are extremely diverse, ranging from immune activation to small molecule metabolism, autophagy and apoptosis. In this review, we bring together a fragmented body of literature on the kinetics and dynamics of peptidoglycan interactions with the mammalian host, explaining how peptidoglycan functions as a signalling molecule in the host under physiological conditions, how it disseminates within the host, and the cellular responses to peptidoglycan.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paulo A D Bastos
- Institut Pasteur, Biology and genetics of the bacterial cell wall Unit, 25-28 rue du Docteur Roux, Paris 75724, France; CNRS, UMR 2001 "Microbiologie intégrative et moléculaire", Paris 75015, France.,Université de Paris, Sorbonne Paris Cité, 12 rue de l'Ecole de Médecine, 75006, Paris, France
| | - Richard Wheeler
- Institut Pasteur, Biology and genetics of the bacterial cell wall Unit, 25-28 rue du Docteur Roux, Paris 75724, France; CNRS, UMR 2001 "Microbiologie intégrative et moléculaire", Paris 75015, France.,Tumour Immunology and Immunotherapy, Institut Gustave Roussy, 114 rue Edouard-Vaillant, Villejuif 94800, France; INSERM UMR 1015, Villejuif 94800, France
| | - Ivo G Boneca
- Institut Pasteur, Biology and genetics of the bacterial cell wall Unit, 25-28 rue du Docteur Roux, Paris 75724, France; CNRS, UMR 2001 "Microbiologie intégrative et moléculaire", Paris 75015, France
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Frederiksen CØ, Cohn MT, Skov LK, Schmidt EGW, Schnorr KM, Buskov S, Leppänen M, Maasilta I, Perez-Calvo E, Lopez-Ulibarri R, Klausen M. A muramidase from Acremonium alcalophilum hydrolyse peptidoglycan found in the gastrointestinal tract of broiler chickens. J Ind Microbiol Biotechnol 2021; 48:6128676. [PMID: 33693885 PMCID: PMC9113140 DOI: 10.1093/jimb/kuab008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2020] [Accepted: 01/20/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
This study evaluates peptidoglycan hydrolysis by a microbial muramidase from the
fungus Acremonium alcalophilum in vitro and in the
gastrointestinal tract of broiler chickens. Peptidoglycan used for in
vitro studies was derived from 5 gram-positive chicken gut isolate
type strains. In vitro peptidoglycan hydrolysis was studied by
three approaches: (a) helium ion microscopy to identify visual phenotypes of
hydrolysis, (b) reducing end assay to quantify solubilization of peptidoglycan
fragments, and (c) mass spectroscopy to estimate relative abundances of soluble
substrates and reaction products. Visual effects of peptidoglycan hydrolysis
could be observed by helium ion microscopy and the increase in abundance of
soluble peptidoglycan due to hydrolysis was quantified by a reducing end assay.
Mass spectroscopy confirmed the release of hydrolysis products and identified
muropeptides from the five different peptidoglycan sources. Peptidoglycan
hydrolysis in chicken crop, jejunum, and caecum samples was measured by
quantifying the total and soluble muramic acid content. A significant increase
in the proportion of the soluble muramic acid was observed in all three segments
upon inclusion of the microbial muramidase in the diet.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Miika Leppänen
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences and Department of Physics, University of Jyvaskyla, Jyvaskyla, FI-40014, Finland
| | - Ilari Maasilta
- Department of Physics, University of Jyvaskyla, Jyvaskyla, FI-40014, Finland
| | - Estefania Perez-Calvo
- Research Centre for Animal Nutrition and Health, DSM Nutritional Products, Village-Neuf, F-68305 Saint Louis, France
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Frkanec R, Travas D, Krstanović M, Spoljar BH, Ljevaković D, Vranesić B, Frkanec L, Tomasić J. Entrapment of peptidoglycans and adamantyltripeptides into liposomes: an HPLC assay for determination of encapsulation efficiency. J Liposome Res 2004; 13:279-94. [PMID: 14670233 DOI: 10.1081/lpr-120026452] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
The encapsulation of different immunomodulating peptides, the peptidoglycan monomer, its semisynthetic derivatives (Adamant-1-yl)-acetyl-peptidoglycan monomer and Boc-Tyr-peptidoglycan monomer, respectively, and of two diastereoisomers of adamantyltripeptides into the large negatively charged multilamellar liposomes was investigated. The reproducible quantitative method using HPLC was established for the determination of the entrapped compounds. It was shown that the tested compounds could be efficiently incorporated into liposomes using either the film or modified film method. The results confirmed that the peptidoglycans with lipophilic substituents and particularly the adamantyltripeptides were incorporated into liposomes with higher efficiency than the peptidoglycan monomer using either of the described methods. Liposome preparations were stable at 4 degrees C up to seven days as shown by minimal leaking of the entrapped material.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruza Frkanec
- Research and Development, Institute of Immunology, Inc., Zagreb, Croatia.
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Fosset S, Fromentin G, Rampin O, Lang V, Mathieu F, Tomé D. Pharmacokinetics and feeding responses to muramyl dipeptide in rats. Physiol Behav 2003; 79:173-82. [PMID: 12834788 DOI: 10.1016/s0031-9384(03)00065-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
N-acetyl-muramyl-L-alanine-D-isoglutamine or muramyl dipeptide (MDP) is the minimally active subunit of bacterial peptidoglycan. During a systemic infection, the involvement of MDP has been demonstrated in food intake depression by the macrophage hydrolysis of Gram-positive bacteria. Under normal conditions, mammals are constantly exposed to the release of endogenous MDP from degraded gut flora and that of exogenous MDP from the diet. However, MDP digestion and absorption in the gastrointestinal tract are not fully understood, and their physiological significance needs to be clarified. After gavage (1.5 mg/kg), very low levels of MDP were found in the systemic circulation of rats and feeding patterns were not altered. In contrast, after the intraperitoneal injection of a similar dose, a depression in food intake was observed. The rats reduced their meal frequency and constant feeding rate, showing signs of satiety. The behavioral satiety sequence (BSS) was modified by behavioral changes, similar to those which appear during sickness, such as an increase in resting and a reduction in grooming. Our data suggest that the hypophagic effect of MDP may result from satiety and sickness behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sophie Fosset
- Unité INRA/INAPG de Physiologie de la Nutrition et du Comportement Alimentaire, Institut National Agronomique de Paris-Grignon, 16 rue Claude Bernard, F-75231, Paris, France
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Frkanec R, Noethig-Laslo V, Vranesić B, Mirosavljević K, Tomasić J. A spin labelling study of immunomodulating peptidoglycan monomer and adamantyltripeptides entrapped into liposomes. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA 2003; 1611:187-96. [PMID: 12659960 DOI: 10.1016/s0005-2736(03)00054-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The interaction of immunostimulating compounds, the peptidoglycan monomer (PGM) and structurally related adamantyltripeptides (AdTP1 and AdTP2), respectively, with phospholipids in liposomal bilayers were investigated by electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy. (1). The fatty acids bearing the nitroxide spin label at different positions along the acyl chain were used to investigate the interaction of tested compounds with negatively charged multilamellar liposomes. Electron spin resonance (ESR) spectra were studied at 290 and 310 K. The entrapment of the adamantyltripeptides affected the motional properties of all spin labelled lipids, while the entrapment of PGM had no effect. (2). Spin labelled PGM was prepared and the novel compound bearing the spin label attached via the amino group of diaminopimelic acid was chromatographically purified and chemically characterized. The rotational correlation time of the spin labelled molecule dissolved in buffer at pH 7.4 was studied as a function of temperature. The conformational change was observed above 300 K. The same effect was observed with the spin labelled PGM incorporated into liposomes. Such effect was not observed when the spin labelled PGM was studied at alkaline pH, probably due to the hydrolysis of PGM molecule. The study of possible interaction with liposomal membrane is relevant to the use of tested compounds incorporated into liposomes, as adjuvants in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruza Frkanec
- Institute of Immunology Inc, PO Box 266, 10001 Zagreb, Croatia
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Halassy B, Krstanović M, Frkanec R, Tomasić J. Adjuvant activity of peptidoglycan monomer and its metabolic products. Vaccine 2003; 21:971-6. [PMID: 12547610 DOI: 10.1016/s0264-410x(02)00547-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Peptidoglycan monomer (PGM) is a natural compound of bacterial origin. It is a non-toxic, non-pyrogenic, water-soluble immunostimulator potentiating humoral immune response to ovalbumin (OVA) in mice. It is fast degraded and its metabolic products-the pentapeptide (PP) and the disaccharide (DS)-are excreted from the mammalian organism upon parenteral administration. The present study investigates: (a). whether PGM could influence the long-living memory generation; (b). whether metabolic products retain adjuvant properties of the parent compound and contribute to its adjuvanticity. We report now that mice immunised twice with OVA+PGM had significantly higher anti-OVA IgG levels upon challenge with antigen alone 6 months later in comparison to control group immunised with OVA only. PP and DS were prepared enzymatically in vitro as apyrogenic and chemically pure compounds. When mice were immunised with OVA plus PP and DS, respectively, the level of anti-OVA IgGs in sera was not higher than in mice immunised with OVA alone, while PGM raised the level of specific antibodies. Results implicate that the adjuvant active molecule, capable of enhancing long-living memory generation, is PGM itself, and none of its metabolic products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beata Halassy
- Research and Development Department, Institute of Immunology Inc, Rockefellerova 10, HR-10 000, Zagreb, Croatia.
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Muhvić D, El-Samalouti V, Flad HD, Radosević-Stasić B, Rukavina D. The involvement of CD14 in the activation of human monocytes by peptidoglycan monomers. Mediators Inflamm 2001; 10:155-62. [PMID: 11545252 PMCID: PMC1781699 DOI: 10.1080/09629350123956] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Cell-wall components of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria induce the production of cytokines in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells. These cytokines are the main mediators of local or systemic inflammatory reaction that can contribute to the development of innate immunity. AIMS This study was performed to analyze the involvement of CD14 molecule in the activation of human monocytes by peptidoglycan monomer (PGM) obtained by biosynthesis from culture fluid of penicillin-treated Brevibacterium divaricatum NRLL-2311. METHODS Cytokine release of interleukin (IL)-1, IL-6 and tumor necrosis factor-alpha from human monocytes via soluble CD14 (sCD14) or membrane-associated (mCD14) receptor using anti-CD14 monoclonal antibody (MEM-18) or lipid A structure (compound 406) was measured in bioassays. RESULTS The results demonstrated that PGM in the presence of human serum might induce the monokine release in a dose-dependent manner. The addition of sCD14 at physiologic concentrations enhanced the PGM-induced monokine release, while the monokine inducing capacity of PGM in the presence of sCD14 was inhibited by MEM-18. Effects of PGM were also blocked by glycolipid, compound 406, suggesting the involvement of binding structures similar to those for lipopolysaccharide. CONCLUSION Activation of human monocytes by PGM involves both forms of CD14 molecule, sCD14 and mCD14.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Muhvić
- Department of Physiology and Immunology, Medical Faculty, University of Rijeka, Croatia.
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Ladesić B, Perović S, Hrsak I. Pharmacokinetics of an immunomodulator peptidoglycan monomer in mice after intravenous administration. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF IMMUNOPHARMACOLOGY 1993; 15:145-50. [PMID: 8468117 DOI: 10.1016/0192-0561(93)90090-l] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
A 14C labeled low molecular weight immunomodulator, peptidoglycan monomer (14C-PGM), was injected intravenously (i.v.) into mice. At various time intervals thereafter (15 min-6 h), radioactivity in the urine, whole blood, plasma, kidneys, liver, spleen, lungs, intestines and the brain of the mice was determined. Shortly after injection, 14C-PGM was very rapidly excreted from the organism, so that 1 h following administration, 80% of the radioactivity was found in the urine (62% as unchanged PGM and the rest as the metabolites pentapeptide and disaccharide). At the same time, around 2% of the injected material was found in the blood. Six hours after injection, equal quantities were found in the intestines, liver and blood (0.5%), slightly less in the kidneys, lungs and spleen (0.2-0.3%) and the least quantity in the brain (0.04%). However, the dynamics of retention in the organs was evidently different. In the kidneys, lungs and spleen, radioactivity steadily decreased over the studied period. In the liver following an initial decrease, radioactivity remained the same 3 and 6 h after injection. On the other hand, in the intestines and brain PGM seemed to accumulate rather than disappear following i.v. administration. This fact should be considered when explaining different biological activities of low molecular weight bacterial peptidoglycans.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Ladesić
- Department of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry, Ruder Bosković Institute, Zagreb, Croatia
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