Dissipative relaxation of a low-energy intermediate electronic state in three-level electron transfer

Ubiquitous Electron Transport in Non-Electron Transfer Proteins

Many proteins that have no known role in electron transfer processes are excellent electronic conductors. This surprising characteristic is not generally evident in bulk aggregates or crystals, or in isolated, solvated peptides, because the outer hydrophilic shell of the protein presents a barrier to charge injection. Ligands that penetrate this barrier make excellent electrical contacts, yielding conductivities on the order of a S/m. The Fermi Energy of metal electrodes is aligned with the energy of internal electronic states of the protein, as evidenced by resonant transmission peaks at about 0.3V on the Normal Hydrogen Electrode scale. This energy is about 0.7 V less than the oxidation potential of aromatic amino acids, indicating a large reduction in electrostatic reorganization energy losses in the interior of the proteins. Consistent with a possible biological role for this conductance, there is a strong dependence on protein conformation. Thus, direct measurement of conductance is a powerful new way to read out protein conformation in real time, opening the way to new types of single molecule sensors and sequencing devices.

Electrochemistry and in situ scanning tunnelling microscopy of pure and redox-marked DNA- and UNA-based oligonucleotides on Au(111)-electrode surfaces

We have studied adsorption and electrochemical electron transfer of several 13- and 15-base DNA and UNA (unlocked nucleic acids) oligonucleotides (ONs) linked to Au(111)-electrode surfaces via a 5'-C6-SH group using cyclic voltammetry (CV) and scanning tunnelling microscopy in aqueous buffer under electrochemical potential control (in situ STM). 2,2',6',2''-Terpyridine (terpy) onto which the transition metal ions Fe(2+/3+), Os(2+/3+) and Ru(2+/3+) could be coordinated after UNA monolayer formation was attached to UNA via a flexible linker. The metal centres offer CV probes and in situ STM contrast markers, and the flexible UNA/linker a potential binder for intercalation. CV of pure and mercaptohexanol diluted ON monolayers displayed reductive desorption signals but also, presumably capacitive, signals at higher potentials. Distinct voltammetric signals arise on metal binding. Those from Ru-binding are by far the strongest and in accord with multiple site Ru-attachment. In situ STM disclosed molecular scale features in varying coverage on addition of the metal ions. The Ru-derivatives showed a bias voltage dependent broad maximum in the tunnelling current-overpotential correlation which could be correlated with theoretical frames for condensed matter conductivity of redox molecules. Together the data suggest that Ru-units are bound to both terpy and the UNA-DNA backbone.

Electric double layer effect on observable characteristics of the tunnel current through a bridged electrochemical contact

Scanning tunneling microscopy and electrical conductivity of redox molecules in conducting media (aqueous or other media) acquire increasing importance both as novel single-molecule science and with a view on molecular scale functional elements. Such configurations require full and independent electrochemical potential control of both electrodes involved. We provide here a general formalism for the electric current through a redox group in an electrochemical tunnel contact. The formalism applies broadly in the limits of both weak and strong coupling of the redox group with the enclosing metal electrodes. Simple approximate expressions better suited for experimental data analysis are also derived. Particular attention is given to the effects of the Debye screening of the electric potential in the narrow tunneling gap based on the limit of the linearized Poisson-Boltzmann equation. The current/overpotential relation shows a maximum at a position which depends on the ionic strength. It is shown, in particular, that the dependence of the maximum position on the bias voltage may be nonmonotonous. Approximate expressions for the limiting value of the slope of the current/overpotential dependence and the width of the maximum on the bias voltage are also given and found to depend strongly on both the Debye screening and the position of the redox group in the tunnel gap, with diagnostic value in experimental data analysis.

Adsorption and in situ scanning tunneling microscopy of cysteine on Au(111): Structure, energy, and tunneling contrasts

The amino acid L-cysteine (Cys) adsorbs in highly ordered (3 square root of 3 x 6) R30 degrees lattices on Au(111) electrodes from 50 mM ammonium acetate, pH 4.6. We provide new high-resolution in situ scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) data for the L-Cys adlayer. The data substantiate previous data with higher resolution, now at the submolecular level, where each L-Cys molecule shows a bilobed feature. The high image resolution has warranted a quantum chemical computational effort. The present work offers a density functional study of the geometry optimized adsorption of four L-Cys forms-the molecule, the anion, the neutral radical, and its zwitterion adsorbed a-top-at the bridge and at the threefold hollow site of a planar Au(111) Au12 cluster. This model is crude but enables the inclusion of other effects, particularly the tungsten tip represented as a single or small cluster of W-atoms, and the solvation of the L-Cys surface cluster. The computational data are recast as constant current-height profiles as the most common in situ STM mode. The computations show that the approximately neutral radical, with the carboxyl group pointing toward and the amino group pointing away from the surface, gives the most stable adsorption, with little difference between the a-top and threefold sites. Attractive dipolar interactions screened by a dielectric medium stabilize around a cluster size of six L-Cys entities, as observed experimentally. The computed STM images are different for the different L-Cys forms. Both lateral and vertical dimensions of the radical accord with the observed dimensions, while those of the molecule and anion are significantly more extended. A-top L-Cys radical adsorption further gives a bilobed height profile resembling the observed images, with comparable contributions from sulfur and the amino group. L-Cys radical a-top adsorption therefore emerges as the best representation of L-Cys adsorption on Au(111).

The First Picoseconds in Bacterial Photosynthesis?Ultrafast Electron Transfer for the Efficient Conversion of Light Energy

In this Minireview, we describe the function of the bacterial reaction centre (RC) as the central photosynthetic energy-conversion unit by ultrafast spectroscopy combined with structural analysis, site-directed mutagenesis, pigment exchange and theoretical modelling. We show that primary energy conversion is a stepwise process in which an electron is transferred via neighbouring chromophores of the RC. A well-defined chromophore arrangement in a rigid protein matrix, combined with optimised energetics of the different electron carriers, allows a highly efficient charge-separation process. The individual molecular reactions at room temperature are well described by conventional electron-transfer theory.

Double-Tunnel Nanoscale Switch with a Redox Mediator: Operational Principles and Tunneling Spectroscopy

A description of the physical mechanism and operation of a novel nanometric electronic switch [D.I. Gittins et al., Nature 2000 408, 67] is presented. New options for controlling the properties of this device are suggested and analyzed.

Resonance effects in strongly exothermic long-range electron transfer and their possible implications for the behaviour of site-directed mutant proteins

Long-range electron transfer investigations of hemoproteins, blue copper and iron-sulphur proteins frequently rest on electronically excited metal centres. When the excitation energy approaches the oxidation or reduction potentials of intermediate residues the superexchange view normally used, however, fails and a variety of new dynamic features arise. These all involve population of the intermediate cation or anion residue states which can be partially or wholly vibrationally relaxed. We discuss suitable views and a new theoretical formalism for these phenomena. We also note some important implications for site-directed mutagenesis in long-range, strongly exothermic electron transfer processes.