Presence of a charybdotoxin sensitive Ca2+-activated K+ channel in rat glioma C6 cells

Expression and Role of the Intermediate-Conductance Calcium-Activated Potassium Channel KCa3.1 in Glioblastoma

Glioblastomas are characterized by altered expression of several ion channels that have important consequences in cell functions associated with their aggressiveness, such as cell survival, proliferation, and migration. Data on the altered expression and function of the intermediate-conductance calcium-activated K (KCa3.1) channels in glioblastoma cells have only recently become available. This paper aims to (i) illustrate the main structural, biophysical, pharmacological, and modulatory properties of the KCa3.1 channel, (ii) provide a detailed account of data on the expression of this channel in glioblastoma cells, as compared to normal brain tissue, and (iii) critically discuss its major functional roles. Available data suggest that KCa3.1 channels (i) are highly expressed in glioblastoma cells but only scantly in the normal brain parenchima, (ii) play an important role in the control of glioblastoma cell migration. Altogether, these data suggest KCa3.1 channels as potential candidates for a targeted therapy against this tumor.

Selective intermediate-/small-conductance calcium-activated potassium channel (KCNN4) blockers are potent and effective therapeutics in experimental brain oedema and traumatic brain injury caused by acute subdural haematoma

Early deterioration and death after brain injury is often the result of oedema in the injured and peri-lesional tissue. So far, no pharmacotherapy is available that exhibits significant brain oedema-reducing efficacy in patients. We selected two low molecular weight compounds from different chemical classes, a triazole (1-[(2-chlorophenyl)diphenylmethyl]-1,2,3-triazole) and a cyclohexadiene (methyl 4-[4-chloro-3-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]-6-methyl-3-oxo-1,4,7-tetrahydroisobenzofuran-5-carboxylate) to characterize their pharmacological properties on KCNN4 channels (intermediate/small conductance calcium-activated potassium channel, subfamily N, member 4) in vitro as well as in vivo. In vitro we replaced potassium by rubidium (Rb+) and determined Rb+ fluxes evoked by 10 micro m of the calcium ionophore A23187 on C6BU1 rat glioma cells. Compared with known KCNN4 blockers, such as clotrimazole (IC50=360 +/- 12 nm) and charybdotoxin (IC50=3.3 +/- 1.9 nm), the triazole and cyclohexadiene were considerably more potent than clotrimazole and displayed similar potencies (IC50=12.1 +/- 8.8 and 13.3 +/- 4.7 nm, respectively). In the rat acute subdural haematoma model, both the triazole and cyclohexadiene displayed reduction of brain water content (-26% at 0.3 mg/kg and -24% at 0.01 mg/kg) and reduction of the intracranial pressure (-46% at 0.1 mg/kg and -60% at 0.003 mg/kg) after 24 h when administered as a 4-h infusion immediately after brain injury. When infarct volumes were determined after 7 days, the triazole as well as the cyclohexadiene displayed strong neuroprotective efficacy (-52% infarct volume reduction at 1.2 mg/kg and -43% at 0.04 mg/kg, respectively). It is concluded that blockade of KCNN4 channels is a new pharmacological approach to attenuate acute brain damage caused by traumatic brain injury.

Inhibition of the antigen-induced activation of RBL-2H3 cells by charybdotoxin and cetiedil

Quinidine and Ba(2+), non-selective K(+)-channel blockers, have previously been shown to inhibit antigen-induced mediator (beta-hexosaminidase) release from RBL-2H3 cells, a mucosal-type mast cell line. We therefore used selective blockers of Ca(2+)-activated and other K(+) channels to determine if there was a role for these channels in antigen-induced mediator release. Charybdotoxin and cetiedil dose-dependently inhibited beta-hexosaminidase release with IC(50) values of 133 nM and 84 microM, respectively. Charybdotoxin also inhibited the repolarization phase of the antigen-induced biphasic change in the membrane potential (IC(50) 84 nM), antigen-stimulated 86Rb(+)-efflux and increase in free intracellular calcium, [Ca(2+)](i). Iberiotoxin, margatoxin, apamin and tetraethylammonium had no effect on beta-hexosaminidase release. These results suggest that K(+) conductances play a significant role in mediator release from RBL-2H3, that these conductances are of the intermediate conductance Ca(2+)-activated K(+) channel (IK(Ca)) type, and that they are somewhat similar to those which have been described in red blood cells, though they are much less sensitive to clotrimazole.

Decrease in Ca2+-activated K+ conductance in differentiated C6-glioma cells

Ca2+-activated K+ channels were studied in C6-glioma cells in an attempt to correlate changes in expression with cell proliferation and differentiation. In this study, we treated C6-glioma cells with thapsigargin for 48 h. Cell proliferation was markedly inhibited, and cell morphology changed from round to a spindle differentiated shape. Furthermore, intracellular calcium concentration was initially increased during acute treatment with thapsigargin. The internal [Ca2+]i pool was eventually depleted after a 48-h thapsigargin treatment. We have characterized Ca2+-activated K+ currents in less differentiated C6 cells. After differentiation of C6 cells induced by thapsigargin, Ca2+-activated K+ currents were selectively suppressed. These data lend further support to the notion that the expression of Ca2+-activated K+ channels is intimately associated with the proliferation of C6-glioma cells, and the suppression of Ca2+-activated K+ channels coincides with the inhibition of proliferation and subsequent induction of cell differentiation.

4-Phenyl-4H-pyrans as IK(Ca) channel blockers

4-Phenyl-4H-pyrans have been identified as potent and specific IK(Ca) channel blockers. Their synthesis and structure-activity relationships are described. A selected derivative, rac-11, reduces the infarct volume in a rat subdural hematoma model of traumatic brain injury after iv administration.

Endothelin Opens Potassium Channels in Glial Cells

Endothelin-1 (ET-1), an autocrine hormone synthesized by astrocytes, and endothelin-3 (ET-3), a highly homologous peptide produced by neurons, have both been shown previously to cause proliferation of these astrocytes in culture [Supattapone et al. (1989) Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun., 165, 1115 - 1122; MacCumber et al. (1990) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 87, 2359 - 2363]. We now demonstrate, using 86Rb+ influx assays and single channel patch-clamp recording, that both endothelins-ET-3 and ET-1-can also open a charybdotoxin-sensitive, calcium-activated K+ channel of 15 - 40 pS in glial cells. The opening of this channel may be important for the regulation of [K+] in the brain microenvironment. Thus, the endothelins may be a general mediator of astroglial response to neuronal injury.

Enzymatic modulation of cell volume in C6 glioma cells

We monitored the volume of C6 glioma cells in suspension using a Coulter Counter and exposed the cells to micromolar or nanomolar levels of collagenase or clostripain. In 13 experiments, type IV collagenase (310 units ml-1; approximately 3 microM L-1) decreased the volume by 8-12%, 8 min after addition. In 13 of 21 experiments, the volume decrease was followed by a volume regulatory increase (VRI) back to control levels in the continued presence of collagenase. The shrinkage evoked by type IV collagenase was eliminated by heat-inactivation of the enzyme preparation. A highly purified collagenase (type VII) at the same concentration evoked a relatively minor decrease in volume. A well-known contaminating protease present in type IV collagenase, clostripain, which specifically cleaves arginyl peptide bonds, evoked a 7 +/- 2% shrinkage (100 nM L-1, 7 experiments). Clostripain did not evoke a volume regulatory increase. The initial velocity of shrinkage evoked by clostripain (0.0012 pL min-1, 0.0034 pL min-1, 0.0132 pL min-1; 1 pL = 10(-12) liters) scaled with its concentration (1 nM L-1, 10 nM L-1, 100 nM L-1). The effect of clostripain was inhibited by heat-inactivation of the enzyme. Leupeptin, an inhibitor of clostripain, prevented the decrease in volume evoked by clostripain. The activity of stretch-activated ion channels was unaffected by type IV collagenase. Barium, cesium, amiloride, DIDS, or bumetanide failed to block the shrinkage evoked by type IV collagenase. These results demonstrate that clostripain, present in crude collagenase enzyme preparations, causes the shrinkage, and that C6 glioma cells can undergo a volume regulatory increase at virtually constant osmotic pressure. In addition, cleavage of a cell surface moiety, which contains arginine, and possibly proline, causes shrinkage. This moiety may be part of the extracellular or intracellular matrix providing mechanical support to the cells. VRI reflect actions of another substance in the type IV crude collagenase preparations, on a receptor independent of the arg-pro moiety. The enzymatic modulation of glioma cell volume by these two receptors may reflect a new mechanism by which such cells, and possibly other glia, regulate their contact area and interactions with other cells in the central nervous system.

Ca2+-activated K channel of the BK-type in the inner mitochondrial membrane of a human glioma cell line

A single channel current was recorded from mitoplasts (i.e., inner mitochondrial membrane) of the human glioma cell line LN229 using patch-clamp techniques in the mitoplast-attached mode. We frequently found a 295 +/- 18 pS channel that showed a straight i-E relation in the range +/-60 mV in 150 mM KCl solutions on either side of the mitoplast. If KCl in the bath was exchanged against NaCl, outward currents were undetectable, indicating potassium selectivity. Channel activity determined as open probability increased with increasing Ca2+ concentrations (EC50 = 0.9 microM at 60 mV). Open probability was voltage dependent. An e-fold increase of time spent in the open state was induced by a depolarization of 10.5 mV. Open probability was decreased by charybdotoxin concentration and voltage dependently (EC50 = 1.4 nM). In conclusion, we show for the first time that the inner mitochondrial membrane in human glioma cells contains a calcium-dependent K channel of the BK-type.

Characterization of Ca(2+)-activated 86Rb+ fluxes in rat C6 glioma cells: a system for identifying novel IKCa-channel toxins

1. The pharmacological characteristics of a putative Ca2+ activated K+ channel (IKCa channel) in rat glioma C6 cells were studied in the presence of the Ca2+ ionophore, ionomycin and various K+ channel blockers, 86Rb+ being used as a radioisotopic tracer for K+. 2. The resting 86Rb+ influx into C6 cells was 318 +/- 20 pmol s-1. The threshold for ionomycin activation of 86Rb+ influx was approx. 100 nM. At ionomycin concentrations above the activation threshold, the initial rate of 86Rb+ influx was proportional to ionophore concentration. Ionomycin-activated 86Rb+ flux was saturable (EC50 = 0.62 +/- 0.03 microM) and was not inhibited by ouabain. 3. Intracellular Ca2+ increased within 30 s from a basal level of 42 +/- 2 nM to 233 +/- 17 nM, after addition of 2 microM ionomycin. During this period, intracellular pH fell from 7.03 +/- 0.04 to 6.87 +/- 0.03 and the cell hyperpolarized from -34 +/- 10 mV to -76 +/- 2 mV. 4. Single channel conductance measurements on inside-out patches in physiological K+ solutions identified a 14 +/- 3 pS CA(2+)-activated K+ current between -25 mV and +50 mV. In symmetrical (100 mM) K+, the single channel conductance was 26 pS. 5. Externally applied quinine (IC50 = 0.12 +/- 0.34 mM) and tetraethylammonium chloride (IC50 = 10 +/- 1.9 mM) inhibited 86Rb+ influx into C6 cells in a concentration-dependent manner. Charybdotoxin (IC50 = 0.5 +/- 0.02 nM) and iberiotoxin (IC50 = 800 +/- 150 nM), as well as the crude venoms from the scorpions Leiurus quinquestriatus and Mesobuthus tamulus, also inhibited 86Rb+ influx. In contrast, apamin and toxin I had no inhibitory effects on 86Rb+ flux. A screen of fractions from cation exchange h.p.l.c. of Mesob. tamulus venom revealed the presence of at least four charybdotoxin-like peptides. One of these was iberiotoxin; the other three are novel toxins. 6. The ionomycin-activated 86Rb+ influx into rat C6 glioma cells has proved to be a valuable pharmacological assay for the screening of toxins and crude venoms which modify intermediate conductance, Ca2+ activated K+ channel activity.

Physiology of transformed glial cells

Much of our present knowledge of glial cell function stems from studies of glioma cell lines, both rodent (C6, C6 polyploid, and TR33B) and human (1321N1, 138MG, D384, R-111, T67, Tp-276MG, Tp-301MG, Tp-483MG, Tp-387MG, U-118MG, U-251MG, U-373MG, U-787MG, U-1242MG, and UC-11MG). New methods such as patch clamp and Ca2+ imaging have lead to rapid progress the last few years in our knowledge about glial cells, where an unexpected presence and diversity of receptors and ion channels have emerged. Basic mechanisms related to membrane potential and K+ transport and the presence of voltage gated ion channels (Na+, inwardly rectifying K+, Ca(2+)-activated K+, Ca2+, and Cl- channels) have been identified. Receptor function and intracellular signaling for glutamate, acetylcholine, histamine, serotonin, cathecolamines, and a large number of neuropeptides (bradykinin, cholecystokinin, endothelin, opioids, and tachykinins) have been characterized. Such studies are facilitated in cell lines which offer a more homogenous material than primary cultures. Although the expression of ion channels and receptors vary considerably between different cell lines and comparative studies are rare, a few differences (compared to astrocytes in primary culture) have been identified which may turn out to be characteristic for glioma cells. Future identification of specific markers for receptors on glial and glioma cells related to cell type and growth properties may have great potential in clinical diagnosis and therapy.

Ca(2+)-dependent K+ channel activity in rat glioma cells induced by bradykinin stimulation and by inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate injection

1. A glial cell line derived from C6 rat glioma cells has been shown previously to respond to extracellular pulses of bradykinin or intracellular injection of inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (Ins-P3) with a slow hyperpolarizing response due to activation of a K+ current (G. Reiser et al., Brain Res. 506, 205-214; 1990). 2. We determined the ensuing single-channel activity, which is most likely caused by Ca2+ released from internal stores after bradykinin stimulation. Bradykinin-activated channels were selectively permeable to K+, but not to Na+ or to Cl-, and exhibited conductances of mainly 40 and 50 pS. In glioma cells the same type of channel was activated by intracellular injection of Ins-P3 and by extracellular bradykinin pulses.

Glial calcium

This review summarizes current knowledge relating intracellular calcium and glial function. During steady state, glia maintain a low cytosolic calcium level by pumping calcium into intracellular stores and by extruding calcium across the plasma membrane. Glial Ca2+ increases in response to a variety of physiological stimuli. Some stimuli open membrane calcium channels, others release calcium from intracellular stores, and some do both. The temporal and spatial complexity of glial cytosolic calcium changes suggest that these responses may form the basis of an intracellular or intercellular signaling system. Cytosolic calcium rises effect changes in glial structure and function through protein kinases, phospholipases, and direct interaction with lipid and protein constituents. Ultimately, calcium signaling influence glial gene expression, development, metabolism, and regulation of the extracellular milieu. Disturbances in glial calcium homeostasis may have a role in certain pathological conditions. The discovery of complex calcium-based glial signaling systems, capable of sensing and influencing neural activity, suggest a more integrated neuro-glial model of information processing in the central nervous system.

A Ca(2+)- and pH-dependent K+ channel of rat C6 glioma cells and its possible role in acidosis-induced cell swelling

The aim of the present study was to explore whether a change in membrane K+ conductance contributes to acidosis-induced swelling of cultured rat C6 glioma cells. Electrophysiological studies were performed using whole-cell and single-channel recordings in combination with cell volume measurements in cell suspension by flow cytometry. Whole-cell recordings revealed a voltage-dependent K+ conductance. The predominant K+ channel in single-channel recordings with symmetrical high K+ concentrations was inwardly rectifying and had conductances of 35 and 15 pS, respectively. A raised internal free Ca2+ concentration and membrane depolarization increased the open probability of this channel. Internal acidosis (pH 6.4-5.4), on the other hand, reduced open probability and single-channel conductance. Both whole-cell and single-channel K+ currents were blocked by quinidine (0.1-1 mM), which was therefore used to analyze the functional consequences of an inhibition of this conductance for cell volume. Thereby, quinidine (1 mM) produced a small (5%) and transient cell swelling of C6 glioma cells. In contrast, acidosis (pH 5.6) caused a much larger (about 20%) and maintained swelling. Since quinidine produced only a minor swelling of C6 cells, it is unlikely that inhibition of the K+ conductance caused acidosis-induced cell swelling. Other mechanisms, such as activation of ion transporters, must therefore be responsible.

Effect of charybdotoxin and leiurotoxin I on potassium currents in bullfrog sympathetic ganglion and hippocampal neurons

The effects of charybdotoxin and leiurotoxin I were examined on several classes of K+ currents in bullfrog sympathetic ganglion and hippocampal CA1 pyramidal neurons. Highly purified preparations of charybdotoxin selectively blocked a large voltage- and Ca(2+)-dependent K+ current (IC) responsible for action potential repolarization (IC50 = 6 nM) while leiurotoxin I selectively blocked a small Ca(2+)-dependent K+ conductance (IAHP) responsible for the slow afterhyperpolarization following an action potential (IC50 = 7.5 nM) in bullfrog sympathetic ganglion neurons. Neither of the toxins had significant effects on other K+ currents (M-current [IM], A-current [IA] and the delayed rectifier [IK]) present in these cells. Leiurotoxin I at a concentration of 20 nM had no detectable effect on currents in hippocampal CA1 pyramidal neurons. This lack of effect on IAHP in central neurons suggests that the channels underlying slow AHPs in those neurons are pharmacologically distinct from analogous channels in peripheral neurons.

Calcium dependence of serotonin-evoked conductance in C6 glioma cells

Whole-cell membrane currents and imaging of intracellular calcium concentrations ([Ca2+]i) were used to investigate the role of calcium in a response to serotonin of C6 glioma cells. Activation of a high-affinity serotonin receptor induced a transient rise in calcium concentration in these cells and activated a predominantly potassium conductance, with a small chloride component. Perfusion of the cytoplasm with an internal solution containing high calcium concentration induced similar but prolonged increase of membrane conductance. The responsiveness of C6 cells to serotonin was negatively correlated with the concentration of the unbound calcium chelator BAPTA when BAPTA-buffered calcium-containing intracellular solutions were used. Responses to serotonin persisted in the absence of external calcium, decreased gradually, and then recovered partially after replenishment of extracellular calcium. These findings substantiate the direct role of intracellular calcium in mediating the serotonin response, and indicate that serotonin-induced release of calcium from intracellular stores is sufficient for the activation of conductance in the C6 glioma cell line.

Identification of RBK1 potassium channels in C6 astrocytoma cells

Ionic currents in C6 astrocytoma cells were studied using the patch clamp technique under the whole cell configuration. A delayed rectifier K+ current with an amplitude of approximately 1 nA at +50 mV was observed in 86% (92/107) of the cells examined. This K+ current resembled the delayed rectifier present in type-1 and type-2 astrocytes in vitro and could be inhibited by a variety of K+ channel blockers, including TEA (IC50:0.5 mM), 4-aminopyridine (IC50:0.2 mM), MCD peptide (IC50:52 nM), dendrotoxin I (IC50:9 nM), and charybdotoxin (74% inhibition at 50 nM). Northern blot analysis, cloning of cDNA and subsequent sequencing showed that the C6 cell delayed rectifier K+ channel is equivalent to the RBK1 K+ channel derived from a rat brain cDNA library. The level of RBK1 transcripts in C6 cells was comparable to that reported in rat brain. The C6 delayed rectifier K+ channel is probably a homomeric RBK1 K+ channel judging from its pharmacological properties which are similar to the RBK1 channel expressed in Xenopus oocytes. Some C6 cells also expressed a transiently activated outward K+ current (IA). This current was found in less than 50% of the cells and in general contributed no more than 8% of the total outward current. No voltage-dependent inward Na+ or Ca2+ currents or inwardly rectifying K+ currents were observed in over 100 C6 cells examined. The present results show that the dominant voltage gated ionic current in C6 cells is the RBK1 delayed rectifier K+ channel.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Lipid solubility is not the sole criterion for the inhibition of a Ca2(+)-activated K+ channel by alcohols

The effect of a homologous series of n-alkanols (C2-C8) on the 86Rb+ influx through charybdotoxin sensitive Ca2(+)-activated K+ channels of rat glioma C6 cells was investigated. The lipid solubility of the n-alkanols was not the sole determinant of the inhibitory potency of these substances for ion flux inhibition. 1-Hexanol for example was about 8-times less potent than one would expect on the basis of its lipid solubility. The introduction of a second OH-group in this molecule (giving 1,6-hexanediol) or a structural shift in the OH-group of 1-hexanol from position 1 to 3 strongly increased the potency of the alcohol. The above data cannot be explained by a pure lipid site of action of the alcohols. Therefore it seems likely that direct effects on protein are involved in the inhibitory action of some of the alcohols.

Potassium channel toxins

Many venom toxins interfere with ion channel function. Toxins, as specific, high affinity ligands, have played an important part in purifying and characterizing many ion channel proteins. Our knowledge of potassium ion channel structure is meager because until recently, no specific potassium channel toxins were known, or identified as such. This review summarizes the sudden explosion of research on potassium channel toxins that has occurred in recent years. Toxins are discussed in terms of their structure, physiological and pharmacological properties, and the characterization of toxin binding sites on different subtypes of potassium ion channels.