Vitamin K epoxidase activity of rough and smooth microsomes from rat liver

Developmental changes of vitamin K epoxidase and reductase activities involved in the vitamin K cycle in human liver

We examined the developmental changes in activities of vitamin K epoxidase, and vitamin K-2,3-epoxide reductase and vitamin K reductase in the human autopsied liver. The activity of epoxidase, which converts vitamin K hydroquinone to its epoxide, showed a high value in the early prenatal period of 10-30 gestational weeks but decreased rather rapidly in contrast with the reductase activities. After birth, a significant decrease of the epoxidase activity was observed but no such change was seen during the postnatal period. On the other hand, the activities of vitamin K-2,3-epoxide reductase and vitamin K reductase, which convert vitamin K-2,3-epoxide to its hydroquinone, showed a significantly low value in the early prenatal period. The highest activity of vitamin K epoxidase in the early prenatal period may be essential to the production of vitamin K dependent ligands for growth factors expressed in the embryo.

Synthesis of vitamin K1 2,3-epoxide in rat liver mitochondria

Metabolism of vitamin K1 in rat liver mitochondria has been studied with succinate as the source of reducing equivalents. A metabolite was isolated that comigrated with vitamin K1 epoxide using four different chromatographic systems. The purified metabolite had an ultraviolet spectrum (200-330 nm) that was identical to that of synthetic vitamin K1 epoxide. The mass spectrum of the purified metabolite was identical to that of synthetic vitamin K1 epoxide. A comparison of production of vitamin K1 epoxide by mitochondrial and microsomal preparations indicates that the mitochondrial production of vitamin K1 epoxide was about 50% of that of the microsomes. Since the mitochondrial preparation was found to have only 3.4% of the glucose-6-phosphatase activity of the microsomal preparation, it can be concluded that the vitamin K1 epoxide isolated from the mitochondrial incubations was due primarily to mitochondrial synthesis. Epoxidation of vitamin K1 in mitochondria suggests that mitochondria might be sites for vitamin K-dependent carboxylation of protein(s).

Post-translational carboxylation of preprothrombin

In summary, in this review on the function of vitamin K in post-translational modification of precursor proteins by carboxylation of certain glutamyl residues, I have tried to cover in particular the recent work on the reaction, the enzymes involved and the mechanisms being considered. In doing this I have also considered vitamin K, its discovery, its functional form and the possible relation of its metabolism to the carboxylation reaction. Equally the various vitamin K-dependent gla-containing proteins currently known have been described. The carboxylation of synthetic small molecule exogenous substrates and the synthesis and metabolism of the products of carboxylation are of great help in studying the reaction. Structural specificity of vitamin K analogs in vivo and in vitro has been compared and the use of various antagonists in vivo and in vitro considered in attempts to gain an understanding of the overall reaction. The reactions subsequent to carboxylation, e.g., the activation of prothrombin to thrombin via serine proteases and the related activation of the other vitamin K-dependent proteins have not been considered in this review. The review has not covered prothrombin or other vitamin K-dependent protein isolation, nor the determination of these proteins. As the vitamin K-dependent protein carboxylation story has developed over the past six years, a number of reviews have been written which help in keeping up with the various aspects of the field as it has expanded. These reviews refer to many of the papers I have had to eliminate due to space limitations. They are referenced as 469-489. The review is in no sense comprehensive and many papers have been missed or only mentioned. I have tried to concentrate on the more recent work and, thus, much of the very fine work of the 1940's on vitamin K chemistry is hardly mentioned. Some redundancy has been built into the organization of the review so that a reader can obtain a reasonable view of any one section without having to search the whole review for all possible relevant information on any particular part of the field.