Acetaminophen (paracetamol) in the management of burned children with fever

Frequency and causes of seizure among hospitalized burned children

METHODS

In this cross-sectional retrospective study, frequency, type, time of occurrence and atiology of seizures in children with burn was investigated. All cases were under 18 years and were hospitalized in Shahid Motahari Burns Hospital during 2006-2011. Extracted data from patients' medical records was reviewed and statistically analyzed.

RESULTS

Among 1103 patients, 69 (6.2%) had seizures, more frequently in the first 24 h following burn. Thermal burn, especially with boiling water was the cause of burn in most of the children. Seizures occurred more commonly in children less than 3 years old and was generalized (tonic-clonic). Seizure was found to be primarily associated with febrile seizure, while hyponatremia was diagnosed as the second cause. Previous seizure history and seizure with unknown cause were identified as other etiologies. This paper summarizes the key information about seizure following burn, which health professionals, especially those in burn centers, should be aware. However, since this study was single-center more investigations in other centers are needed.

Management of pain in children with burns

Burn injuries are common in children under 10 years of age. Thermal injury is the most common mechanism of injury and scalds account for >60% of such injuries. All children with burns will experience pain, regardless of the cause, size, or burn depth. Undertreated pain can result in noncompliance with treatment and, consequently, prolonged healing. It is acknowledged that the monitoring and reporting of pain in children with burns has generally been poor. Due to the adverse physiological and emotional effects secondary to pain, adequate pain control is an integral and requisite component in the management of children with burns. A multidisciplinary approach is frequently necessary to achieve a robust pain relief. Key to successful treatment is the continuous and accurate assessment of pain and the response to therapy. This clinical review article discusses the essential aspects of the pathophysiology of burns in children provides an overview of pain assessment, the salient principles in managing pain, and the essential pharmacodynamics of commonly used drugs in children with burn injuries. Both pharmacological and nonpharmacological treatment options are discussed, although a detailed review of the latter is beyond the scope and remit of this article.

Temperature response to severe head injury and the effect on body energy expenditure and cerebral oxygen consumption

This study examines the relationship between core temperature and whole body energy expenditure, cerebral oxygen consumption (CMRO2), cerebral blood flow (CBF), and intracranial pressure (ICP) in severely head injured children. A total of 107 serial measurements of temperature, energy expenditure, CMRO2, CBF, and ICP were made in 18 head injured children receiving neurointensive care. Energy expenditure was measured using indirect calorimetry, and CMRO2 and CBF using the Kety-Schmidt technique. The mean rectal temperature was 37.8 degrees C (34-39.1 degrees C) despite modification with paracetamol. Within each child there was a positive relationship between rectal temperature and energy expenditure, energy expenditure increasing by a mean of 7.4% per degree C. There was no evidence of significant relationships between rectal temperature and CMRO2, CBF, or ICP. Mild induced hypothermia in two children did not result in decreased CMRO2 or CBF measurements. The efficacy of interventions aiming to modify cerebral energy metabolism by changing core temperature cannot be readily assessed by the response of the whole body.

Evaluation of early enteral feeding in children less than 3 years old with smaller burns (8-25 per cent TBSA)

Early enteral feeding and high protein nutrition have been advocated for burned patients. The safety and efficacy of early high protein nasogastric feeding (NG) have not been evaluated in very young children. The present study evaluated such feeding in children less than 3 years old with smaller burns (8-25 per cent of total body surface area). Children (n = 10) were able to tolerate high protein intake without detrimental effects. The incidences of gastrointestinal complications related to NG feeding were low. The children needed approximately 2 weeks of supplemental NG feeding which provided two-thirds of total energy intake and three-fourths of protein intake. In spite of smaller burns, the mean measured resting metabolic expenditure (REE) was 1.3 x predicted REE. The mean energy intake of 92 per cent of recommended daily allowances (RDA) for energy or 1.7 x predicted REE was able to maintain body weight. The mean protein intake was 4.3 g/kg/day with a non-protein calorie ratio of 114:1. During the first week postburn, plasma concentrations of prealbumin, albumin and transferrin were low. The high protein intake was able to raise these visceral proteins to normal ranges. These results indicate that early NG feeding is safe and efficacious for achieving increased energy intake and improved protein status in very young children.

Acute changes in oxygen consumption and body temperature after burn injury

This study describes the pattern of oxygen consumption (VO2), rectal temperature (Tr), and acral skin temperature (Tac) in sleeping and resting (awake) burned children nursed in a thermoneutral environment. Measurements of respiratory gas exchange (VO2 and carbon dioxide production (VCO2)) were made using an open circuit, flow through system of indirect calorimetry. Tr and Tac were monitored continuously. Sixteen patients were studied during the first 18 hours after being burned. Three phases of change in VO2, Tr, and Tac are described. The first was a stable period and there was little change from admission values. The second (7-10 hours after burn) was a phase of rapid heat storage. It started with a fall in Tac. Peak values of Tr (38.8-41.1, median 40.0 degrees C) and VO2 (8.5-11.8 ml/min/kg) occurred either in phase 2 or in the later phase 3. At its peak VO2 was 12-61% above values in phase 1. In phase 3, Tac returned towards admission values but Tr and VO2 were variable. These changes suggest that both an increase in metabolic heat production as well as heat conservation at the extremities may be involved in the generation of early fever after a burn.