Electrophysiology of the dorsolateral mesopontine reticular formation during Pavlovian conditioning in the rabbit

From safety to frustration: The neural substrates of inhibitory learning in aversive and appetitive conditioning procedures

Inhibitory associative learning counters the effects of excitatory learning, whether appetitively or aversively motivated. Moreover, the affective responses accompanying the inhibitory associations are of opponent valence to the excitatory conditioned responses. Inhibitors for negative aversive outcomes (e.g. shock) signal safety, while inhibitors for appetitive outcomes (e.g. food reward) elicit frustration and/or disappointment. This raises the question as to whether studies using appetitive and aversive conditioning procedures should demonstrate the same neural substrates for inhibitory learning. We review the neural substrates of appetitive and aversive inhibitory learning as measured in different procedural variants and in the context of the underpinning excitatory conditioning on which it depends. The mesocorticolimbic dopamine pathways, retrosplenial cortex and hippocampus are consistently implicated in inhibitory learning. Further neural substrates identified in some procedural variants may be related to the specific motivation of the learning task and modalities of the learning cues. Finally, we consider the translational implications of our understanding of the neural substrates of inhibitory learning, for obesity and addictions as well as for anxiety disorders.

Projections from the rat pedunculopontine and laterodorsal tegmental nuclei to the anterior thalamus and ventral tegmental area arise from largely separate populations of neurons

Cholinergic and non-cholinergic neurons in the brainstem pedunculopontine (PPT) and laterodorsal tegmental (LDT) nuclei innervate diverse forebrain structures. The cholinergic neurons within these regions send heavy projections to thalamic nuclei and provide modulatory input as well to midbrain dopamine cells in the ventral tegmental area (VTA). Cholinergic PPT/LDT neurons are known to send collateralized projections to thalamic and non-thalamic targets, and previous studies have shown that many of the afferents to the VTA arise from neurons that also project to midline and intralaminar thalamic nuclei. However, whether cholinergic projections to the VTA and anterior thalamus (AT) are similarly collateralized is unknown. Ultrastructural work from our laboratory has demonstrated that cholinergic axon varicosities in these regions differ both morphologically and with respect to the expression and localization of the high-affinity choline transporter. We therefore hypothesized that the cholinergic innervation to these regions is provided by separate sets of PPT/LDT neurons. Dual retrograde tract-tracing from the AT and VTA indicated that only a small percentage of the total afferent population to either region showed evidence of providing collateralized input to the other target. Cholinergic and non-cholinergic cells displayed a similarly low percentage of collateralization. These results are contrasted to a control case in which retrograde labeling from the midline paratenial thalamic nucleus and the VTA resulted in higher percentages of cholinergic and non-cholinergic dual-tracer labeled cells. Our results indicate that functionally distinct limbic target regions receive primarily segregated signaling from PPT/LDT neurons.

Activity of neurons in the pedunculopontine nucleus during a food-related operant conditioned reflex

The activity of 91 neurons in the compact and diffuse zones of the pedunculopontine nucleus of freely mobile rabbits was studied during performance of a food-related operant conditioned reflex. A total of 37.4% of the neurons recorded showed reactivity to the conditioned stimulus, which is evidence that the pedunculopontine nucleus is involved in operant learning. A significant predominance of excitatory responses to the conditioned stimulus and to food reinforcement was demonstrated. The main patterns of cell responses were identified, these reflecting the nature of the effect of the conditioned stimulus on neuron activity, the structure of the behavioral act, and the properties of the reinforcement, and demonstrating a relationship between the pedunculopontine nucleus and the processes of attention, motor learning, and reinforcement. Differences were seen in the associative reactive properties of the compact and diffuse zones of the pedunculopontine nucleus to the conditioned stimulus and reinforcement, which is evidence for the functional diversity of this formation and suggests a leading role for the cholinergic compact zone in food-related operant learning and reinforcement, the diffuse zone having a leading role in food-related classical conditioned-reflex learning.

Neuron activity in the pedunculopontine nucleus during an operant conditioned defensive reflex

The activity of 109 neurons in the compact and diffuse zones of the pedunculopontine nucleus was studied in freely mobile rabbits during the acquisition and performance of a defensive operant conditioned reflex. A total of 47% of the neurons recorded showed responsive properties to the conditioned stimulus, which is evidence for the involvement of the pedunculopontine nucleus in operant learning. A significant predominance of excitatory conditioned reflex responses to the conditioned stimulus was demonstrated, showing that the nature of the influence of the pedunculopontine nucleus on projection structures during learning is mostly excitatory. The main patterns of cell responses to the conditioned stimulus were identified, these reflecting the nature of the influence of the conditioned stimulus on neuron activity, the structure of the behavioral act, and the properties of the reinforcement, suggesting a relationship between the pedunculopontine nucleus and the processes of attention, motor learning, and reinforcement. A significant decrease in the reactivity of neurons in the pedunculopontine nucleus to the conditioned stimulus as a result of specialization due to learning was demonstrated. Differences in the associative reactive properties of the compact and diffuse zones of the pedunculopontine nucleus to the conditioned stimulus were identified, which is evidence for the functional heterogeneity of this formation and suggests a leading role for the cholinergic compact zone in operant defensive behavior.