S1 nuclease mapping of the phage Mu mom gene promoter: a model for the regulation of mom expression

Emergence of a novel immune-evasion strategy from an ancestral protein fold in bacteriophage Mu

The broad host range bacteriophage Mu employs a novel 'methylcarbamoyl' modification to protect its DNA from diverse restriction systems of its hosts. The DNA modification is catalyzed by a phage-encoded protein Mom, whose mechanism of action is a mystery. Here, we characterized the co-factor and metal-binding properties of Mom and provide a molecular mechanism to explain 'methylcarbamoyl'ation of DNA by Mom. Computational analyses revealed a conserved GNAT (GCN5-related N-acetyltransferase) fold in Mom. We demonstrate that Mom binds to acetyl CoA and identify the active site. We discovered that Mom is an iron-binding protein, with loss of Fe2+/3+-binding associated with loss of DNA modification activity. The importance of Fe2+/3+ is highlighted by the colocalization of Fe2+/3+ with acetyl CoA within the Mom active site. Puzzlingly, acid-base mechanisms employed by >309,000 GNAT members identified so far, fail to support methylcarbamoylation of adenine using acetyl CoA. In contrast, free-radical chemistry catalyzed by transition metals like Fe2+/3+ can explain the seemingly challenging reaction, accomplished by collaboration between acetyl CoA and Fe2+/3+. Thus, binding to Fe2+/3+, a small but unprecedented step in the evolution of Mom, allows a giant chemical leap from ordinary acetylation to a novel methylcarbamoylation function, while conserving the overall protein architecture.

Silencing of toxic gene expression by Fis

Bacteria and bacteriophages have evolved DNA modification as a strategy to protect their genomes. Mom protein of bacteriophage Mu modifies the phage DNA, rendering it refractile to numerous restriction enzymes and in turn enabling the phage to successfully invade a variety of hosts. A strong fortification, a combined activity of the phage and host factors, prevents untimely expression of mom and associated toxic effects. Here, we identify the bacterial chromatin architectural protein Fis as an additional player in this crowded regulatory cascade. Both in vivo and in vitro studies described here indicate that Fis acts as a transcriptional repressor of mom promoter. Further, our data shows that Fis mediates its repressive effect by denying access to RNA polymerase at mom promoter. We propose that a combined repressive effect of Fis and previously characterized negative regulatory factors could be responsible to keep the gene silenced most of the time. We thus present a new facet of Fis function in Mu biology. In addition to bringing about overall downregulation of Mu genome, it also ensures silencing of the advantageous but potentially lethal mom gene.

Dual role for transactivator protein C in activation of mom promoter of bacteriophage Mu

Transactivator C protein of bacteriophage Mu activates the mom gene of the phage by an unusual mechanism. DNA binding by C to its site results in unwinding of the neighboring sequences, realigning the out-of-phase promoter elements to facilitate RNA polymerase (RNAP) binding. High level stimulation of a C-independent constitutive promoter mutant (where RNAP is already bound) by the transactivator suggested an additional mechanism of transcription activation at a step after RNAP recruitment. In this study, we have investigated the various steps of promoter-polymerase interactions during transcription initiation by using both the promoter mutant and a positive control (pc) mutant of C protein. The transactivator does not influence formation of the open complex or its stability after facilitating the RNAP binding. However, at a subsequent step, the protein exerts an important role, enhancing the promoter clearance by increasing the productive RNAP.promoter complex. The pc mutant of the transactivator C is compromised at this step, supporting the additional downstream role for C in mom transcription activation. We suggest that this unusual multistep activation of Pmom has evolved to ensure irreversibility of the switch during the late lytic cycle of the phage.

Intrinsic DNA distortion of the bacteriophage Mu momP1 promoter is a negative regulator of its transcription. A novel mode of regulation of toxic gene expression

The momP1 promoter of the bacteriophage Mu mom operon is an example of a weak promoter. It contains a 19-base pair suboptimal spacer between the -35 (ACCACA) and -10 (TAGAAT) hexamers. Escherichia coli RNA polymerase is unable to bind to momP1 on its own. DNA distortion caused by the presence of a run of six T nucleotides overlapping the 5' end of the -10 element might prevent RNA polymerase from binding to momP1. To investigate the influence of the T(6) run on momP1 expression, defined substitution mutations were introduced by site-directed mutagenesis. In vitro probing experiments with copper phenanthroline ((OP)(2)Cu) and DNase I revealed distinct differences in cleavage patterns among the various mutants; in addition, compared with the wild type, the mutants showed an increase (variable) in momP1 promoter activity in vivo. Promoter strength analyses were in agreement with the ability of these mutants to form open complexes as well as to produce momP1-specific transcripts. No significant role is attributed to the overlapping and divergently organized promoter, momP2, in the expression of momP1 activity, as determined by promoter disruption analysis. These data support the view that an intrinsic DNA distortion in the spacer region of momP1 acts in cis as a negative element in mom operon transcription. This is a novel mechanism of regulation of toxic gene expression.

Unusual transcriptional and translational regulation of the bacteriophage Mu mom operon

The bacteriophage Mu mom gene encodes a novel DNA modification that protects the viral genome against a wide variety of restriction endonucleases. Expression of mom is subject to a series of unusual regulatory controls. Transcription requires the action of a phage-encoded protein, C, which binds (probably as a dimer) the mom promoter from -33 to -52 (with respect to the transcription start site) in two adjacent DNA major grooves on one face of the helix. No apparent direct interaction between C and the host RNA polymerase (RNAP) is evident; however, C binding alters mom DNA conformation. In the absence of C, RNAP binds the mom promoter at a site that results in transcription in a direction away from the mom gene. The function of this transcription is unknown. An additional layer of transcriptional regulation complexity is due to the fact that the host Dam DNA-(N6-adenine)methyltransferase is required. Dam methylation of three closely spaced upstream GATC sequences is necessary to prevent binding by the host protein, OxyR, which acts as a repressor. Repression is not mediated by inhibition of C binding, but rather through interference with C-mediated recruitment of RNAP to the correct site. Translation of mom is regulated by the phage Com protein. Com is only 62 amino acids long and contains a zinc finger-like structure (coordinated by four cysteine residues) in the amino terminal domain. Com binds mom mRNA 5' to the mom open reading frame, whose translation start signals are contained in a stem-loop translation-inhibition-structure. Com binding to its target site (5' to and adjacent to the translation-inhibition-structure) results in a stable change in RNA secondary structure that exposes the translation start signals.

Bidirectional transcription in the mom promoter region of bacteriophage Mu

Transcription of the Mu mom operon requires activation by the phage gene product, C, a site-specific DNA binding protein. Previous in vivo and in vitro footprinting studies showed that Escherichia coli RNA polymerase (Esigma70=RNAP) bound the wild-type (wt) mom promoter (Pmom) region in the absence of C; this site, now designated momP2 (-11 to -64), is slightly upstream of, but overlapping with, momP1 (+16 to -49), the functional binding site for mom operon (rightward) transcription. The location/distribution of KMnO4-sensitive sites on the two DNA strands suggested that RNAP bound at momP2 was in an open-complex, but that transcription was in the opposite direction. Here, we used both runoff transcription and reverse transcriptase-primer extension sequencing to provide direct evidence that in the absence of C protein, RNAP carries out leftward transcription from momP2 both in vitro and in vivo. In addition, the 5' ends of these transcripts were mapped to the same upstream initiation site, -58G, relative to the initiation site of C-activated rightward transcription. We also present evidence that leftward transcription from momP2 requires RNAP recognition of an UP-element by the carboxyl-terminal domain of the alpha subunit.

Escherichia coli OxyR modulation of bacteriophage Mu mom expression in dam+ cells can be attributed to its ability to bind hemimethylated Pmom promoter DNA

Transcription of the bacteriophage Mu mom operon is strongly repressed by the host OxyR protein in dam - but not dam + cells. In this work we show that the extent of mom modification is sensitive to the relative levels of the Dam and OxyR proteins and OxyR appears to modulate the level of mom expression even in dam + cells. In vitro studies demonstrated that OxyR is capable of binding hemimethylated P mom , although its affinity is reduced slightly compared with unmethylated DNA. Thus, OxyR modulation of mom expression in dam + cells can be attributed to its ability to bind hemimethylated P mom DNA, the product of DNA replication.

Chemistry and biology of DNA methyltransferases

Recognition of a specific DNA sequence by a protein is probably the best example of macromolecular interactions leading to various events. It is a prerequisite to understanding the basis of protein-DNA interactions to obtain a better insight into fundamental processes such as transcription, replication, repair, and recombination. DNA methyltransferases with varying sequence specificities provide an excellent model system for understanding the molecular mechanism of specific DNA recognition. Sequence comparison of cloned genes, along with mutational analyses and recent crystallographic studies, have clearly defined the functions of various conserved motifs. These enzymes access their target base in an elegant manner by flipping it out of the DNA double helix. The drastic protein-induced DNA distortion, first reported for HhaI DNA methyltransferase, appears to be a common mechanism employed by various proteins that need to act on bases. A remarkable feature of the catalytic mechanism of DNA (cytosine-5) methyltransferases is the ability of these enzymes to induce deamination of the target cytosine in the absence of S-adenosyl-L-methionine or its analogs. The enzyme-catalyzed deamination reaction is postulated to be the major cause of mutational hotspots at CpG islands responsible for various human genetic disorders. Methylation of adenine residues in Escherichia coli is known to regulate various processes such as transcription, replication, repair, recombination, transposition, and phage packaging.

Escherichia coli OxyR protein represses the unmethylated bacteriophage Mu mom operon without blocking binding of the transcriptional activator C

Transcription of the bacteriophage Mu mom operon requires transactivation by the phage-encoded C protein. DNase I footprinting showed that in the absence of C, Escherichia coli RNA polymerase E(sigma)70 (RNAP) binds to the mom promoter (Pmom) region at a site, P2 (from -64 to -11 with respect to the transcription start site), on the top (non-transcribed) strand. This is slightly upstream from, but overlapping P1 (-49 to +16), the functional binding site for rightward transcription. Host DNA-[N6-adenine] methyltransferase (Dam) methylation of three GATCs immediately upstream of the C binding site is required to prevent binding of the E.coli OxyR protein, which represses mom transcription in dam- strains. OxyR, known to induce DNA bending, is normally in a reduced conformation in vivo, but is converted to an oxidized state under standard in vitro conditions. Using DNase I footprinting, we provide evidence supporting the proposal that the oxidized and reduced forms of OxyR interact differently with their target DNA sequences in vitro. A mutant form, OxyR-C199S, was shown to be able to repress mom expression in vivo in a dam- host. In vitro DNase I footprinting showed that OxyR-C199S protected Pmom from -104 to -46 on the top strand and produced a protection pattern characteristic of reduced wild-type OxyR. Prebinding of OxyR-C199S completely blocked RNAP binding to P2 (in the absence of C), whereas it only slightly decreased binding of C to its target site (-55 to -28, as defined by DNase I footprinting). In contrast, OxyR-C199S strongly inhibited C-activated recruitment of RNAP to P1. These results indicate that OxyR repression is mediated subsequent to binding by C. Mutations have been isolated that relieve the dependence on C activation and have the same transcription start site as the C-activated wild-type promoter. One such mutant, tin7, has a single base change at -14, which changes a T6 run to T3GT2. OxyR-C199S partially inhibited RNAP binding to the tin7 promoter in vitro, even though the OxyR and RNAP-P1 binding sites probably do not overlap, and in vivo expression of tin7 was reduced 5- to 10-fold in dam- cells. These results suggest that OxyR can repress tin7.

In vitro transcriptional activation of the phage Mu mom promoter by C protein

The phage Mu gene C encodes a 16.5-kDa site-specific DNA-binding protein that functions as a trans-activator of the four phage "late" operons, including mom. We have overexpressed and purified C and used it for DNase I footprinting and transcription analyses in vitro. The footprinting results are summarized as follows. (i) As shown previously (V. Balke, V. Nagaraja, T. Gindlesperger, and S. Hattman, Nucleic Acids Res. 12:2777-2784, 1992) in vivo, Escherichia coli RNA polymerase (RNAP) bound the wild-type (wt) mom promoter at a site slightly upstream from the functionally active site bound on the C-independent tin7 mutant promoter. (ii) In the presence of C, however, RNAP bound the wt promoter at the same site as tin7. (iii) C and RNAP were both bound by the mom promoter at overlapping sites, indicating that they were probably on different faces of the DNA helix. The minicircle system of Choy and Adhya (H. E. Choy and S. Adhya, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 90:472-476, 1993) was used to compare transcription in vitro from the wt and tin7 promoters. This analysis showed the following. (i) Few full-length transcripts were observed from the wt promoter in the absence of C, but addition of increasing amounts of C greatly stimulated transcription. (ii) RNA was transcribed from the tin7 promoter in the absence of C, but addition of C had a small stimulatory effect. (iii) Transcription from linearized minicircles or restriction fragment templates was greatly reduced (although still stimulated by C) with both the wt and tin7 promoters. These results show that C alone is capable of activating rightward transcription in vitro by promoting RNAP binding at a functionally active site. Additionally, DNA topology plays an important role in transcriptional activation in vitro.

Functionally distinct RNA polymerase binding sites in the phage Mu mom promoter region

Transcription of the phage Mu com/mom operon is trans-activated by another phage gene product, C, a site-specific DNA binding protein. To gain insight into the mechanism by which C activates transcription, we carried out footprinting analyses of Escherichia coli RNA polymerase (= RNAP) binding to various com-lacZ fusion plasmids. KMnO4-sensitive sites (diagnostic of the melted regions in open-complexes) and DNase I-sensitive sites were located by primer-extension analysis. The results are summarized as follows: (i) in vivo, in the absence of C, RNAP bound in the wild-type (wt) promoter region at a site designated P2; in vitro DNase I-footprinting showed that P2 extends from -74 to -24 with respect to transcription initiation. This overlaps a known strong C-binding site (at -35 to -54). RNAP bound at P2 appeared to be in an open-complex, as evidenced by the presence of KMnO4-hypersensitive sites. (ii) In contrast, when C was present in vivo, RNAP bound in the wt promoter region at a different site, designated P1, located downstream and partially overlapping P2. RNAP bound at P1 also appeared to be in an open-complex, as evidenced by the presence of KMnO4-hypersensitive sites. (iii) Two C-independent mutants, which initiate transcription at the same position as the wt, were also analyzed. In vivo, in the absence of C, RNAP bound mutant tin7 (contains a T to G substitution at -14) predominantly at P1; in vitro DNase I-footprinting showed that P1 extends from -56 to +21. With mutant tin6 (a 63 base-pair deletion removing P2, as well as part of P1 and the C-binding site from -35 to -54), RNAP bound to P1 independent of C. We conclude that P1 is the 'functional' RNAP binding site for mom-transcription initiation, and that C activates transcription by promoting binding at P1, while blocking binding at P2.

Activation of the bacteriophage Mu lys promoter by Mu C protein requires the sigma 70 subunit of Escherichia coli RNA polymerase

Bacteriophage Mu C protein, a product of the middle operon, is required for activation of the four Mu late promoters. To address its mechanism of action, we overproduced the approximately 16.5-kilodalton C protein from a plasmid containing the C gene under the control of a phage T7 promoter and ribosome-binding site. A protein fraction highly enriched for Escherichia coli RNA polymerase (E sigma 70) and made from the overproducing strain was able to activate transcription in vitro from both the tac promoter (Ptac) and a Mu late promoter, Plys. The behavior of Plys was similar in vivo and in vitro; under both conditions, transcription was C dependent and the RNA 5' ends were identical. When anti-sigma 70 antibody was added to C-dependent transcription reactions containing both Ptac and Plys templates, transcription from both promoters was inhibited; transcription was restored by the addition of excess E sigma 70. This result suggests that C-dependent activation of Plys requires sigma 70. Further supporting evidence was provided by a reconstitution experiment in which an E sigma 70-depleted fraction containing C was unable to activate transcription from Plys unless both purified sigma 70 and core polymerase were added. These results strongly suggest that C is not a new sigma factor but acts as an activator for E sigma 70-dependent transcription.

Kinetics and regulation of transcription of bacteriophage Mu

Mu transcription was analyzed by hybridization of [3H]uridine pulse-labeled RNA from heat-induced Mu lysogens to Mu DNA restriction fragments on nitrocellulose blots. Based on their time of appearance and dependence on Mu functions, we have defined three classes of transcripts: early, middle, and late. Replication-defective prophages containing A or B amber mutations or a deletion of the beta (right) end produced only early RNA derived from the left-most 8 to 10 kb of the Mu genome. A replication-proficient C amber mutant exhibited similar early transcription but at later times also produced middle transcripts from a region including C, which encodes the activator of late transcription. The C mutant did not produce late transcripts from the right-most 26 kb of the Mu genome encoding genes involved in phage morphogenesis and release. These results indicate that Mu DNA replication is required for efficient expression of middle RNA, which is itself required for expression of late transcripts. Amber mutations in essential genes other than A, B, and C had no significant effect on transcription except for polarity of one E mutation. Uninduced Mu c+ and Mu cts prophages produced very low levels of Mu-specific RNA derived from several regions including the c (immunity) gene and the region between genes B and C.

The Escherichia coli MutH protein is not the repressor of the bacteriophage Mu mom operon

Expression of the bacteriophage Mu mom-operon is under tight regulatory control. One of the factors required for transcription of the operon is the host Escherichia coli Dam activity. It was proposed that DNA methylation by this enzyme prevents the binding of a cellular repressor to an operator site containing three 5'-GATC-3' sequences, the known target site of Dam methylation. Support for this model came from the observation of others that the requirement for Dam was almost completely suppressed in a mutH-lysA deletion mutant, suggesting that the MutH protein is the postulated transcriptional repressor. In this communication, however, I show that the Dam requirement is not effectively relieved in this deletion mutant; therefore, the MutH protein alone is not the mom repressor.

Translation of the bacteriophage Mu mom gene is positively regulated by the phage com gene product

Expression of the bacteriophage Mu mom gene is subject to posttranscriptional regulation by the phage com gene product. We have used mom-lacZ translational fusion genes to define the sequence requirements for stimulation of mom expression by Com. We show that the mom translation initiation region (TIR) is inactive in the absence of Com. We suggest that this repressed state is due to mRNA secondary structure in the TIR, since a deletion that destabilizes a stem-loop structure in the TIR results in high levels of Com-independent translation. We identify sequences on the mRNA, adjacent to the stem and loop, that are required for stimulation by Com. We propose that Com acts to stimulate initiation of translation by relieving the structural repression of the mom TIR. Indirect evidence is presented suggesting that Com binds to a site in the TIR.

Role of bacteriophage Mu C protein in activation of the mom gene promoter

The phage Mu C gene product is a specific activator of Mu late gene transcription, including activation of the mom operon. Fusion of the C gene to the efficient translation initiation region of the Escherichia coli atpE gene allowed significant overproduction of C protein, which was subsequently purified and assayed for DNA binding by gel retardation and nuclease footprinting techniques. C protein binds to a site immediately upstream of the -35 region both of the mom promoter and the related phage D108 mod promoter. The location of the mom promoter has been determined by primer extension. Upstream deletions extending more than 3 base pairs into the C-binding site abolished activation of the mom promoter in vivo. In vitro binding of C was not significantly affected by DNA methylation. A second, C-dependent promoter was identified just downstream of the C coding region; comparison with the mom promoter revealed common structural elements.

Bacteriophage Mu late promoters: four late transcripts initiate near a conserved sequence

Late transcription of bacteriophage Mu, which results in the expression of phage morphogenetic functions, is dependent on Mu C protein. Earlier experiments indicated that Mu late RNAs originate from four promoters, including the previously characterized mom promoter. S1 nuclease protection experiments were used to map RNA 5' ends in the three new regions. Transcripts were initiated at these points only in the presence of C and were synthesized in a rightward direction on the Mu genome. Amber mutant marker rescue analysis of plasmid clones and limited DNA sequencing demonstrated that these new promoters are located between C and lys, upstream of I, and upstream of P within the N gene. A comparison of the promoter sequences upstream from the four RNA 5' ends yielded two conserved sequences: the first (tA . . cT, where capital and lowercase letters indicate 100 and 75% base conservation, respectively), at approximately -10, shares some similarity with the consensus Escherichia coli sigma 70 -10 region, while the second (ccATAAc CcCPuG/Cac, where Pu indicates a purine), in the -35 region, bears no resemblance to the E. coli -35 consensus. We propose that these conserved Mu late promoter consensus sequences are important for C-dependent promoter activity. Plasmids containing transcription fusions of these late promoters to lacZ exhibited C-dependent beta-galactosidase synthesis in vivo, and C was the only Mu product needed for this transactivation. As expected, the late promoter-lacZ fusions were activated only at late times after induction of a Mu prophage. The C-dependent activation of lacZ fusions containing only a few bases of the 5' end of Mu late RNA and the presence of altered promoter sequences imply that C acts at the level of transcription initiation.

The bacteriophage Mu com gene appears to specify a translation factor required for mom gene expression

Expression of the bacteriophage Mu mom gene is subject to a variety of regulatory controls. Both the host Dam DNA-adenine methylase and the phage Mu C protein are required for mom gene transcription. In addition, the Mu com gene product is required for production of the mom protein. Because the com and mom genes overlap on the same mRNA transcript (with com being located proximal to the 5' end), it is likely that Com function is exerted after transcription initiation. To study the role of Com, two segments of Mu were cloned in both orientations (+ and -) into the HindIII site of the galactokinase expression vector, pKG1800; the HindIII site is located between the galK structural gene and its promoter. In (+) plasmids, the Mu DNA inserts were transcribed from the gal promoter in the same orientation as in the phage genome; (-) plasmids had the Mu DNA inserted in the reverse orientation. Each Mu insert contained the same segment of the mom gene from the 3' terminus, but differed in the extent of com gene included at the 5' terminus; one contained a truncated com gene and the other a complete com gene, as well as upstream Mu regulatory sequences. The results are summarized as follows: (1) both (-) plasmids produced only about 10% as much galactokinase activity following fucose induction as the parental vector, pKG1800; (2) plasmid pGTVH(+), with an intact com gene produced about 30% as much galactokinase as pKG1800; (3) plasmid pMTVH(+), with a truncated com gene, produced only about 10% as much enzyme as pKG1800.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Post-transcriptional regulation of the bacteriophage Mu mom gene by the com gene product

The mom gene of bacteriophage Mu encodes a DNA modification function, the expression of which is detrimental to the host cell. This may be reflected by the tight regulation of the mom gene at the level of transcription initiation by the Mu C gene product and the host Dam function. In addition, mom expression requires the positive regulatory function Com. The com and mom genes comprise the mom operon with the com coding region partially overlapping that of mom. The degree of overlap is defined by experiments reported here. We have tested Com for activity as an antiterminator of mom transcription. We show that in the absence of Com, premature termination affects at most 33% of the transcription across the mom operon. Although no premature termination is observed in the presence of Com, these results are inconsistent with a role for Com as an antiterminator. Northern blot analysis of Com+ and Com- Mu phage mRNA confirms this conclusion. Two models for the post-transcriptional regulation of mom gene expression by Com are presented.

The sequence and mom-transactivation function of the C gene of bacteriophage Mu

The mom gene of bacteriophage Mu encodes a DNA modification function. The gene is regulated on the transcriptional level by Dam-specific methylation and a trans-acting Mu function, and on a post-transcriptional level by the product of gene com. The gene encoding the transactivator has been cloned and mapped. By complementation analysis the activation function (also designated Dad) was shown to be the product of gene C. Transactivation of the mom promoter was shown in the following assay: the mom promoter and N-terminal part of com were fused in frame to lacZ. Cells containing such fusion plasmids were infected with M13 clones expressing C in the presence of IPTG and XGal. Successful transactivation results in the formation of blue plaques. Moreover, we have determined the sequence of gene C and found that it has a coding capacity of 140 amino acids. The promoter for C (pc) is likely to be located at least 0.5 kb upstream from the gene. A transcription terminator is found directly downstream from the C-coding region.

Regulation and expression of the bacteriophage mu mom gene: mapping of the transactivation (dad) function to the C region

Expression of the bacteriophage Mu mom gene is under tight regulatory control. One of the factors required for mom gene expression is the trans-acting function (designated Dad) provided by another Mu gene. To facilitate studies on the signals mediating mom regulation, we have constructed a mom-lacZ fusion plasmid which synthesizes beta-galactosidase only when the Mu Dad transactivating function is provided. lambda pMu phages carrying different segments of the Mu genome have been assayed for their ability to transactivate beta-galactosidase expression by the fusion plasmid. The results of these analyses indicated that the Dad transactivation function is encoded between the leftmost EcoRI site and the lys gene of Mu; this region includes the C gene, which is required for expression of all Mu late genes. Cloning of an approx. 800-bp fragment containing the C gene produced a plasmid which could complement MuC- phages for growth and could transactivate the mom-lacZ fusion plasmid to produce beta-galactosidase. These results suggest that the C gene product mediates the Dad transactivation function.

The mom gene of bacteriophage mu: a unique regulatory scheme to control a lethal function

The mom gene of bacteriophage Mu encodes a DNA modification function which converts adenine to acetamido adenine in a sequence-specific manner. The mom gene itself is subject to a complex regulation: gene expression requires methylation by the Escherichia coli Dam methylase of specific sites upstream of the mom promoter and transactivation of the promoter by a Mu gene product. The requirement for transactivation can be overcome when mom is transcribed from foreign promoters. When cloned into various sites in pBR322, the mom gene is always found in an orientation where transcription from vector promoters is excluded. The productive orientation is lethal to the cell. This effect is mediated by the concerted action of the mom gene product and the product of gene com (control of mom, previously termed ORF-x) whose coding region overlaps the 5-coding region of the mom gene. When mom is expressed from its own promoter, internal deletions in com completely abolish expression of the mom gene. Fragments lacking the 5' end of com can be cloned downstream of constitutive plasmid promoters. The com gene product itself is not lethal to the cell. The region encoding mom has been cloned in pL expression vectors. The mom gene product, a peptide of 27 kDal, has been visualized on gels. Efficient expression of Mom from pL requires gene com. A fusion between MS-2 polymerase and com has been generated. The fusion product is made in large amounts, whereas the mom gene product is not overproduced although the gene is present on the same transcriptional unit.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)