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Aucamp J, Bronkhorst AJ, Badenhorst CPS, Pretorius PJ. The diverse origins of circulating cell-free DNA in the human body: a critical re-evaluation of the literature. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2018; 93:1649-1683. [PMID: 29654714 DOI: 10.1111/brv.12413] [Citation(s) in RCA: 184] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2017] [Revised: 03/06/2018] [Accepted: 03/09/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Since the detection of cell-free DNA (cfDNA) in human plasma in 1948, it has been investigated as a non-invasive screening tool for many diseases, especially solid tumours and foetal genetic abnormalities. However, to date our lack of knowledge regarding the origin and purpose of cfDNA in a physiological environment has limited its use to more obvious diagnostics, neglecting, for example, its potential utility in the identification of predisposition to disease, earlier detection of cancers, and lifestyle-induced epigenetic changes. Moreover, the concept or mechanism of cfDNA could also have potential therapeutic uses such as in immuno- or gene therapy. This review presents an extensive compilation of the putative origins of cfDNA and then contrasts the contributions of cellular breakdown processes with active mechanisms for the release of cfDNA into the extracellular environment. The involvement of cfDNA derived from both cellular breakdown and active release in lateral information transfer is also discussed. We hope to encourage researchers to adopt a more holistic view of cfDNA research, taking into account all the biological pathways in which cfDNA is involved, and to give serious consideration to the integration of in vitro and in vivo research. We also wish to encourage researchers not to limit their focus to the apoptotic or necrotic fraction of cfDNA, but to investigate the intercellular messaging capabilities of the actively released fraction of cfDNA and to study the role of cfDNA in pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janine Aucamp
- Human Metabolomics, Biochemistry Division, Hoffman Street, North-West University, Private bag X6001 Potchefstroom, 2520, South Africa
| | - Abel J Bronkhorst
- Human Metabolomics, Biochemistry Division, Hoffman Street, North-West University, Private bag X6001 Potchefstroom, 2520, South Africa
| | - Christoffel P S Badenhorst
- Department of Biotechnology and Enzyme Catalysis, Institute of Biochemistry, Greifswald University, Felix-Hausdorff-Straße 4, 17487, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Piet J Pretorius
- Human Metabolomics, Biochemistry Division, Hoffman Street, North-West University, Private bag X6001 Potchefstroom, 2520, South Africa
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Aucamp J, Bronkhorst AJ, Badenhorst CPS, Pretorius PJ. A historical and evolutionary perspective on the biological significance of circulating DNA and extracellular vesicles. Cell Mol Life Sci 2016; 73:4355-4381. [PMID: 27652382 PMCID: PMC11108302 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-016-2370-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2016] [Revised: 08/20/2016] [Accepted: 09/15/2016] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
The discovery of quantitative and qualitative differences of the circulating DNA (cirDNA) between healthy and diseased individuals inclined researchers to investigate these molecules as potential biomarkers for non-invasive diagnosis and prognosis of various pathologies. However, except for some prenatal tests, cirDNA analyses have not been readily translated to clinical practice due to a lack of knowledge regarding its composition, function, and biological and evolutionary origins. We believe that, to fully grasp the nature of cirDNA and the extracellular vesicles (EVs) and protein complexes with which it is associated, it is necessary to probe the early and badly neglected work that contributed to the discovery and development of these concepts. Accordingly, this review consists of a schematic summary of the major events that developed and integrated the concepts of heredity, genetic information, cirDNA, EVs, and protein complexes. CirDNA enters target cells and provokes a myriad of gene regulatory effects associated with the messaging functions of various natures, disease progression, somatic genome variation, and transgenerational inheritance. This challenges the traditional views on each of the former topics. All of these discoveries can be traced directly back to the iconic works of Darwin, Lamarck, and their followers. The history of cirDNA that has been revisited here is rich in information that should be considered in clinical practice, when designing new experiments, and should be very useful for generating an empirically up-to-date view of cirDNA and EVs. Furthermore, we hope that it will invite many flights of speculation and stimulate further inquiry into its biological and evolutionary origins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janine Aucamp
- Centre for Human Metabolomics, Biochemistry Division, North-West University, Potchefstroom, 2520, South Africa.
| | - Abel J Bronkhorst
- Centre for Human Metabolomics, Biochemistry Division, North-West University, Potchefstroom, 2520, South Africa
| | - Christoffel P S Badenhorst
- Department of Biotechnology and Enzyme Catalysis, Institute of Biochemistry, Greifswald University, Felix-Hausdorff-Str. 4, 17487, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Piet J Pretorius
- Centre for Human Metabolomics, Biochemistry Division, North-West University, Potchefstroom, 2520, South Africa
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Abstract
The age-related studies of chromatin and DNA has attracted significant interest in recent years. However, individual works describe only some and a few of the many changes of chromatin. It is often difficult to decide whether these changes have secondary or primary nature. The overview of these studies makes it possible to realize how many very complex and interdependent changes occur in chromatin during ageing. Chromatin is the most complex among self-reproducible parts of the cell. A very sophisticated structure of chromatin makes possible the differential transcription of a genetic programme which supports the accurate specialized functions of each cell in interphase and also provides a mechanism for perfect reproduction of this complex machinery of genetic information during cell division. It is known that chromatin proteins, more than chromatin DNA show tissue specificity and developmental changes. There are many theories of cellular ageing which select some special types of DNA, RNA or protein changes and to promote them as the main or primary causes of cellular senescence. However, if these changes are considered within the more comprehensive picture of functional structure of chromatin the results show the interdependence of individual alterations and their proper place in the complex, multichannel, species and tissue-specific character of actual ageing. An attempt to summarize the basic facts and theories about age changes of the two main parts of chromatin structure, proteins and DNA is being made in this review. At the same time the author tried to develop a concept of non-random distribution of the age changes in chromatin and a possible higher rate of accumulation of different alteration and lesions in the transcribed and functionally active parts of chromatin.
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Auroux M. Decrease of learning capacity in offspring with increasing paternal age in the rat. TERATOLOGY 1983; 27:141-8. [PMID: 6867936 DOI: 10.1002/tera.1420270202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
The same 15 male Wistar rats at the ages of 2.5, 6, 10, 14, 18, and 22 months were successively randomly mated with 2.5-month-old females. In a separate experiment, 15 male Wistar rats at the age of 2.5 months and 15 at the age of 23 months were simultaneously randomly mated with 2.5-month-old females. Offspring were evaluated in regard to the mean number per litter, sex ratio, frequency of gross external malformations, growth pattern, and mortality in the first 13 weeks of life and reproductive capacity at 13 weeks of age. They were also evaluated for spontaneous activity and emotionality with an open field test and for learning capacity with an avoidance conditioning test, both carried out between 10 and 13 weeks of age. Only learning capacity of the offspring, expressed in percentage of success for male or female, decreased consistently and significantly as the father's age increased. But females did not seem to be affected in the same way as males. The genetic implications are briefly discussed.
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Abstract
Damage to DNA seems to be an important cause of cancer and to play a role in aging. Much of this damage results from the action of chemical agents in the environment. These chemicals provide a chance to study DNA repair mechanisms and to construct a model for the investigation of changes in repair with aging. To damage the DNA of male Sprague-Dawley rats aged 6, 22-24 and 24-26 months, three carcinogens were used: N-methyl-N-nitrosourea (MNU), methyl methane sulfonate (MMS) and N,N-dimethyl-nitrosamine (DMN). DNA repair was measured as unscheduled DNA synthesis (UDS) in ten (MNU and DMN) and five (MMS) different organs. MNU and MMS react with DNA without being first metabolized and show a higher UDS in lower concentration than DMN which is metabolized enzymatically prior to the reaction. This result suggests that MNU and MMS produce more damage in the DNA. There are distinct differences in the spleen, lung, liver, kidney and heart in young animals as well as in the tissues of the kidney and the duodenum in old rats. Clearly we can see a reduction of UDS in the old as compared to the young animals after damage by MNU in the skin, lung, brain and heart, by MMS in the heart and liver, and by DMN in the kidney, duodenum, lung and liver, and by all three mutagens in the spleen and testes. These results confirm those obtained after damaging DNA by means of gamma- and UV-irradiation.
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Mellgren J, Malmberg AM, Rynell B. Effects of isologous and nonisologous nucleic acids on the ageing of normal human fibroblasts in vitro. Pathol Res Pract 1978; 163:137-47. [PMID: 724562 DOI: 10.1016/s0344-0338(78)80082-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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Stroun M, Anker P, Maurice P, Gahan PB. Circulating nucleic acids in higher organisms. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF CYTOLOGY 1977; 51:1-48. [PMID: 338535 DOI: 10.1016/s0074-7696(08)60225-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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Modak SP, Commelin D, Grosset L, Imaizumi MT, Monnat M, Scherrer K. DNA synthesis in circulating erythroblasts of anemic duck. Isolation and properties of nuclear and cytoplasmic-nonmitochondrial DNA. EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF BIOCHEMISTRY 1975; 60:407-21. [PMID: 1204648 DOI: 10.1111/j.1432-1033.1975.tb21017.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
In the circulating blood of anemic ducks, 5% of all erythroid cells synthesize DNA. Immature erythroblasts, at all stages of differentiation, synthesize DNA although to a varying degree, while reticulocytes and erythrocytes do not. In the erythroid cell population labeled in vitro 2 h with 32Pi, half of the labeled DNA sediments as small-molecular-weight molecules, suggesting that these molecules fail to integrate into the high-molecular-weight components. Labeled DNA is found in the cytoplasmic postmitochondrial fractions and it is in a form of deoxyribonucleoproteins which cosediment with ribosomes as well as subribosomal particles in sucrose gradients. However, fixation with HCHO and centrifugation to equilibrium in CsCl gradient of these particles shows that the deoxyribonucleoprotein bands at the density different than the ribosomes and, thus, not physically linked to them. In EDTA-dissociated ribosomes, the deoxyribonucleoprotein particles cosediment with ribosomes as well as subribosomal particles in sucorse gradients. However, fixation with HCHO and centrifugation to equilibrium in CsCl gradient of these particles shows that the deoxyribonucleoprotein bands at the density different than the ribosomes and, thus, not physically linked to them. In EDTA-dissociated ribosomes, the deoxyribonucleoprotein particles cosdeiment with ribosomal subunits in such a way that the larger the particle, the larger the molecular weight of the DNA cosedimenting with it. The specific radioactivity of the cytoplasmic ribosome-derived and postribosomal-particle-derived DNAs and the small molecular-weight nuclear DNA is similar and 10-20-fold higher than that of the bulk nuclear DNA. The former three DNA species sediment between 4-14 S. It is concluded that the cytoplasmic nonmitochondrial DNA species are of the nuclear origin. Less than 0.5% of the total cellular nonmitochondrial DNA can be purified from the nucleus and the cytoplasm as fast-labeled small-molecular-weight components. All of the cellular nonmitochondrial DNA species band at the same mean buoyand density in Cs2SO4/urea gradients. All behave as native structures in hydroxyapatite and contain less than 5% of their length as single-stranded regions.
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Shima A. Effect of age on radiosensitivity of nuclear and mitochondrial DNA syntheses in the mouse liver. Exp Gerontol 1975; 10:171-80. [PMID: 1183493 DOI: 10.1016/0531-5565(75)90028-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
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Neurochemical Changes in Composition, Metabolism and Neurotransmitters in the Human Brain with Age. ADVANCES IN BEHAVIORAL BIOLOGY 1975. [DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4684-0925-3_12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
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Welch BL, Brown DG, Welch AS, Lin DC. Isolation, restrictive confinement or crowding of rats for one year. I. Weight, nucleic acids and protein of brain regions. Brain Res 1974; 75:71-84. [PMID: 4858320 DOI: 10.1016/0006-8993(74)90771-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
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Amici D, Gianfranceschi GL, Marsili G, Michetti L. Young and old rats. ATP, alkaline phosphatase, cholesterol and protein levels in the blood; DNA and RNA contents of the liver. Regulation by an aqueous thymus extract. EXPERIENTIA 1974; 30:633-5. [PMID: 4837082 DOI: 10.1007/bf01921514] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
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Amici D, Gianfranceschi GL, Marsili G, Michetti L. Young and old rats. ATP, alkaline phosphatase, cholesterol and protein levels in the blood; DNA and RNA contents of the liver, regulation by an aqueous thymus extract. EXPERIENTIA 1974; 30:209-10. [PMID: 4814615 DOI: 10.1007/bf01927739] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
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Schmahl W, Hoffmann R, Weiss E. [Cytophotometric studies on normal lymph node cells in sheep]. EXPERIENTIA 1972; 28:1074-6. [PMID: 4665304 DOI: 10.1007/bf01918682] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
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Medvedev ZA. Repetition of molecular-genetic information as a possible factor in evolutionary changes of life span. Exp Gerontol 1972; 7:227-38. [PMID: 5073315 DOI: 10.1016/0531-5565(72)90012-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
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Medvedev ZA. Possible role of repeated nucleotide sequences in DNA in the evolution of life spans of differentiated cells. Nature 1972; 237:453-4. [PMID: 4557471 DOI: 10.1038/237453a0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
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Pelc SR. Metabolic DNA in ciliated protozoa, salivary gland chromosomes, and mammalian cells. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF CYTOLOGY 1972; 32:327-55. [PMID: 4623842 DOI: 10.1016/s0074-7696(08)60344-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
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Anker P, Stroun M, Greppin H, Fredj M. Metabolic DNA in spinach stems in connexion with ageing. NATURE: NEW BIOLOGY 1971; 234:184-6. [PMID: 5289838 DOI: 10.1038/newbio234184a0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
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Muggleton-Harris AL. Ageing factors affecting the ability of adult lens cell nuclei for cleavage and development. Exp Gerontol 1971; 6:461-8. [PMID: 5141157 DOI: 10.1016/0531-5565(71)90025-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
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Pelc SR. Influence of metabolic DNA on determinations of the cell cycle. CELL AND TISSUE KINETICS 1971; 4:577-83. [PMID: 5143137 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2184.1971.tb01565.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
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Muggleton-Harris AL. Cellular events concerning the developmental potentiality of the transplanted nucleus, with reference to the aging lens cell. Exp Gerontol 1971; 6:279-85. [PMID: 5166051 DOI: 10.1016/0531-5565(71)90009-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
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