Extension of limb salvage by combined vascular reconstruction and adjunctive free-tissue transfer

Impact of the Timing of Foot Tissue Resection on Outcomes in Patients Undergoing Revascularization for Chronic Limb-Threatening Ischemia

The objective of this study is to describe utilization of revascularization and tissue resection in patients with chronic limb-threatening ischemia (CLTI) and determine whether the timing of resection impacts outcomes. Revascularizations for CLTI were queried (ACS-NSQIP 2011-2015). Outcomes included 30-day major adverse limb events (MALE), major adverse cardiac events (MACE), length of stay (LOS), operative time, 30-day readmissions, and wound infections. Groups included revascularization alone, revascularization/tissue resection during the same procedure (concurrent), or revascularization/delayed tissue resection (delayed). Resections were debridement or transmetatarsal amputations. Multivariate logistic regression determined risk-adjusted effects of tissue resection on outcomes. There was no difference in overall 30-day MACE or MALE between groups (P = .70 and P = .35, respectively). Length of stay (6.1 days revascularization alone vs 7.8 days concurrent vs 8.7 days delayed, P < .0001) was longer in patients who underwent any tissue resection. Highest 30-day readmission and operative time was the concurrent group (P = .02 and P < .0001, respectively). Wound infection was highest in the delayed group (1.4% revascularization alone vs 1.3% concurrent vs 6.2% delayed, P < .0001). After risk adjustment, timing of resection did not impact LOS for concurrent and delayed groups compared to revascularization alone (both P < .0001). Debridement and minor amputations can be done concurrently in patients undergoing revascularization for CLTI.

Revascularization options for terminal distal ischemia

Direct arterial bypass remains the best option in patients with terminal ischemia of the hand, if there is an adequate distal target vessel. In situ bypass is the procedure of choice in patients who are candidates for arterial bypass. Venous arterialization offers an option in patients in whom there is not adequate arterial runoff in the hand. Venous arterialization should be avoided in patients with significant wounds and/or active infection. In selected patients, microvascular omental transfer can offer an option for revascularization of the ischemic hand.

Reconstruction of the ischemic hand

Ischemia of the hand remains an uncommon condition, but problems with arterial perfusion of the hand can arise from trauma (open and closed), thrombosis, or arteriovascular disease. Certain identifiable patterns are seen with hand ischemia, usually discernable according to which one of the major arteries (radial or ulnar) are involved. This article discusses the origin and management of ischemic hand conditions, with an emphasis on recognizing the patterns of ischemia that are commonly seen.

The Indications for and the Prognostic Significance of Amputation as the Primary Surgical Procedure for Localized Soft Tissue Sarcoma of the Extremity

BACKGROUND

The indications for primary amputation of a localized soft tissue sarcoma (STS) of the extremity are not well defined in the literature. However, it has been suggested that patients who require an amputation to treat an STS are at increased risk for developing metastases. We categorized the main indications for primary amputation in our patient population and compared their oncological outcome with the outcome of patients who underwent limb-sparing surgery.

METHODS

413 consecutive patients treated surgically at a single center for primary, nonmetastatic, deep, intermediate-, or high-grade STS of the extremity were reviewed. Indications for primary amputation were identified. Demographics and outcomes were compared between the amputation and limb-salvage groups. Multivariate Cox model analysis was used to identify independent risk factors for systemic relapse.

RESULTS

Twenty-five (6%) of 413 patients with STS underwent primary amputation: they were older (P = .05), had larger tumors (P = .001), and had a significantly greater risk of developing metastatic disease than patients who underwent limb-sparing procedures (P = .008). However, multivariate analysis demonstrated that the only independent predictors of systemic relapse were tumor size (P = .0001) and tumor grade (P = .0001). Primary amputation was not an independent risk factor for metastatic disease.

CONCLUSIONS

The decision to perform a primary amputation for an STS of the extremity is based on the location and local extent of the tumor, and the expected function of the extremity after tumor resection. The higher risk of metastases for patients who require primary amputation is accounted for by independent risk factors associated with their tumors--predominantly large tumor size.

Combined free tissue transfer and infrainguinal bypass graft: an alternative to major amputation in selected patients

OBJECTIVES

The purpose of this study was to document outcome and adverse prognostic factors in patients requiring combined free tissue transfer and distal bypass grafting for otherwise nonreconstructible infrainguinal arterial occlusive disease and advanced tissue necrosis.

METHODS

Between July 1990 and November 1999, 65 patients, all of whom would have required at least below-knee amputation, underwent free tissue transfer in conjunction with infrainguinal bypass grafting at the University of Rochester. Preoperative variables were assessed for their influence on outcome with chi(2) and outcome with life-table analysis with Cox proportionate hazard testing.

RESULTS

Free tissue transfer was performed synchronously with arterial reconstruction with autologous vein in 49 patients and after a previous functioning venous bypass graft in 16 patients. The 30-day mortality rate was 5%, and major complications occurred in another 16% of patients. Flap location, weight-bearing status, preexisting osteomyelitis, and the timing of bypass grafting relative to flap construction had no effect on outcome. All five free flap failures occurred within the first 30 days. All other flaps subsequently survived, even in seven patients whose bypass grafts thrombosed. Five-year limb salvage and patient survival rates were 57% and 60%, respectively, and 65% of patients regained meaningful ambulation. The combination of diabetes and dialysis-dependent renal failure was the strongest predictor of overall limb loss (P <.005; relative risk = 4.0), and diabetes alone was the strongest predictor of death (P <.02; relative risk = 5.2).

CONCLUSION

Free tissue transfer combined with infrainguinal bypass grafting in selected patients is safe and effective. The combination of diabetes and chronic renal insufficiency, particularly the need for dialysis, is a powerful predictor of failure and should be considered a strong contraindication for this procedure.

Combined vascular reconstruction and free flap transfer in diabetic arterial disease

Gangrenous lesions of the foot or lower leg due to severe diabetic arterial disease resulting in extensive soft tissue defects with exposed bones or tendons often result, even after successful revascularisation, in staged or primary amputation. We present our experience with 45 such patients treated with combined arterial reconstruction and free tissue transfer for limb-salvage. All presented with peripheral vascular disease of diabetic origin, and extensive gangrenous lesions that could not be treated by simple wound closure or skin-grafting without major amputation. A total of 53 arterial reconstructions and 47 free-flap transfers were performed. In the majority of patients, the distal anastomosis was on a pedal or tibial vessel. These bypass grafts or a native revascularized artery served as the inflow tract for the free flap which was anastomosed using microsurgical techniques. Venous anastomoses were preferentially performed on the deep venous system. Donor muscles were Musculus rectus abdominis (n=37), Musculus latissimus dorsi (n=5), Musculus serratus anterior (n=3), and a perforator flap (n=2) tailored to the size of the defect and covered with a split thickness graft (STG). The operation was set up as a combined procedure in 39/45 patients, two teams working simultaneously, limiting the mean operative time to 6 h. Early reinterventions had to be performed in 14 patients resulting in five flap losses of which two could be treated with a new free flap transfer and three were amputated. Three other patients died in the postoperative period, leaving us with a total of 39/45 patients leaving the hospital with a full-length limb. Independent ambulation was achieved in 32 of these 39 patients. During late follow-up (mean 26 months) eight bypasses occluded resulting in two amputations and two new vascular reconstructions. Combined survival and limb-salvage rate was 84% after 1 year, 77% after 2 years and 65% after 3 years. The advantages of this combined technique are: (1) it provides immediate soft tissue coverage limiting amputation level and healing time, resulting in early ambulation; (2) it provides extra run-off to the revascularisation, illustrated by a decrease in peripheral resistance, contributing to its patency; (3) the application of healthy, well vascularised tissue limits infection and enhances neovascularisation; (4) a full-length limb is preserved. We believe this combined approach offers a valuable alternative to primary amputation in this group of patients with extensive ischaemic defects.

Factors affecting outcome in free-tissue transfer in the elderly

Free-tissue transfers have become the preferred surgical technique to treat complex reconstructive defects. Because these procedures typically require longer operative times and recovery periods, the applicability of free-flap reconstruction in the elderly continues to require ongoing review. The authors performed a retrospective analysis of 100 patients aged 65 years and older who underwent free-tissue transfers to determine preoperative and intraoperative predictors of surgical complications, medical complications, and reconstructive failures. The parameters studied included patient demographics, past medical history, American Society of Anesthesiology (ASA) status, site and cause of the defect, the free tissue transferred, operative time, and postoperative complications, including free-flap success or failure. The mean age of the patients was 72 years. A total of 46 patients underwent free-tissue transfer after head and neck ablation, 27 underwent lower extremity reconstruction in the setting of peripheral vascular disease, 10 had lower extremity traumatic wounds, nine had breast reconstructions, four had infected wounds, two had chronic wounds, and two underwent transfer for lower extremity tumor ablation. Two patients had an ASA status of 1, 49 patients had a status of 2, 45 patients had a status of 3, and four had a status of 4. A total of 104 flaps were transferred in these 100 patients. There were 49 radial forearm flaps, 34 rectus abdominis flaps, seven latissimus dorsi flaps, seven fibular osteocutaneous flaps, three omental flaps, three jejunal flaps, and one lateral arm flap. Four patients had planned double free flaps for their reconstruction. Mean operative time was 7.8 hours (range, 3.5 to 16.5 hours). The overall flap success rate was 97 percent, and the overall reconstructive success rate was 92 percent. There were six additional reconstructive failures related to flap loss, all of which occurred more than 1 month after surgery. Patients with a higher ASA designation experienced more medical complications (p = 0.03) but not surgical complications. Increased operative time resulted in more surgical complications (p = 0.019). All eight cases of reconstructive failure occurred in patients undergoing limb salvage surgery in the setting of peripheral vascular disease. Free-tissue transfer in the elderly population demonstrates similar success rates to those of the general population. Age alone should not be considered a contraindication or an independent risk factor for free-tissue transfer. ASA status and length of operative time are significant predictors of postoperative medical and surgical morbidity. The higher rate of reconstructive failure in the elderly peripheral vascular disease population compares favorably with other treatment modalities for this disease process.

Management of ischemic heel ulceration and gangrene: An evaluation of factors associated with successful healing

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this study was to determine the effectiveness of treatment of nonhealing heel ulcers and gangrene and to define those variables that are associated with success.

METHODS

A multi-institutional review was undertaken at four university or university-affiliated hospitals of all patients with wounds of the heel and arterial insufficiency, which was defined as absent pedal pulses and a decreased ankle/brachial index (ABI). Risk factors, hemodynamic parameters, and arteriographic findings were statistically analyzed to determine their effect on wound healing. Life-table analysis was used to assess graft patency and wound healing.

RESULTS

Ninety-one patients (57 men, 34 women) were treated for heel wounds that did not heal for 1 to 12 months (62% of nonhealing wounds, 3 months or longer). The mean preoperative ABI was 0.51, and 31% of wounds were infected. Of the patients, 55% had impaired renal function (Cr > 1.5), with 24% undergoing dialysis, 70% had diabetes, and 64% smoked cigarettes. Treatment was topical wound care for all patients and operative wound débridement in 50%. Infrainguinal bypass was performed for 81 patients, 4 had inflow procedures, 3 had superficial femoral artery percutaneous transluminal angioplasty, and 3 had primary below-knee amputation. Postoperatively, 85% of patients had in-line flow to the foot with at least a single patent vessel, 66% had a pedal pulse, and the mean ABI improved by 0.40, to 0.91. Follow-up ranged from 1 to 60 months (mean, 21 months), and 77 patients (85%) are currently alive. In 66 patients (73%), the wounds healed-all within 6 months (mean, 3 months). For 14 (16%) the wounds had not healed, and 11 patients (11%) underwent below-knee amputation. By life-table analysis, limb salvage was 86% at 3 years. During follow-up, 75 infrainguinal bypasses (91%) remained patent (3 secondarily) and 6 occluded, with primary assisted patency of 87% at 3 years. All wounds in patients with occluded grafts failed to heal. Variables found to be statistically significant in predicting healing included normal renal function (95% healed vs 55% nonhealed, P <.002), a palpable pedal pulse (85% healed vs 42%, P <.0015), a patent posterior tibial artery past the ankle (86% healed vs 57%, P <.02), and the number of patent tibial arteries after bypass to the ankle (P <.0001). Neither the ABI nor the presence of infection (defined as positive tissue cultures or the presence of osteomyelitis), diabetes, or other cardiovascular risk factors influenced the outcome.

CONCLUSIONS

Complete wound healing of ischemic heel ulcers or gangrene may require up to 6 months, and short-term graft patency is of minimal benefit. Successful arterial reconstruction, especially a patent posterior tibial artery after bypass, is effective in treating most heel ulcers or gangrene. Patients with impaired renal function are at increased risk for failure of treatment, but their wounds may successfully heal and they should not be denied revascularization procedures.

Combined arterial reconstruction and free tissue transfer for limb salvage

PURPOSE

Lower-extremity arterial anatomy that is insufficient for successful vein bypass grafting and major proximal foot wounds often lead to leg amputation in patients with severe ischemia. Free tissue transfer, which can provide limb salvage in these patients after arterial reconstruction, was studied.

METHODS

During a 45-month period, 21 patients who otherwise would have undergone leg amputation were treated with arterial bypass by means of vein grafting and free tissue transfer. Ages of the patients ranged from 40 to 73 years (average, 59 years); 18 of the 21 patients had diabetes mellitus; and all patients except one were men. Arterial reconstruction was performed from the femoral (nine of 21 patients) or popliteal artery (12 of 21 patients) to the posterior tibial (eight patients), dorsalis pedis (five patients), peroneal (three patients), popliteal (one patient), or anterior tibial artery (one patient), or directly to the free flap (three patients). The tissue transferred included latissimus dorsi (five patients), rectus abdominus (five patients), omentum (five patients), gracilis (two patients), radial forearm flaps (three patients), and a scapular flap (one patient). Foot defects were debrided, including the appropriate toe or transmetatarsal amputation, covered with the transferred flap, and then split-thickness skin grafted. Arterial flow for all flaps was through the vein grafts, with direct arterial anastomosis and with venous outflow through adjacent tibial veins.

RESULTS

All 21 procedures were successful initially, without operative mortality, but three failed within 4 weeks because of uncontrolled infection (two) or embolization from a remote site (one) and required below-knee amputation. Grafts remained patent in 18 procedures, and follow-up of this cohort ranged from 1 to 45 months (mean, 13.3 months). Two patients died, one after 4 months and one after 6 months, of unrelated illness; at the time of death, they had functioning grafts. The remaining 19 patients are alive. Of these, 15 have patent arterial grafts, all viable free flaps. Thus, limb salvage was accomplished in 18 of 21 (86%) patients who otherwise would have required below-knee amputation.

CONCLUSION

Patients destined for leg amputation despite aggressive traditional arterial bypass grafting methods can achieve limb salvage with the additional technique of free tissue transfer.

Free tissue transfer to extend the limits of limb salvage for lower extremity tissue loss

BACKGROUND

The extent of tissue loss amenable to primary healing after revascularization is unknown. Salvage of limbs with large soft-tissue defects with exposed tendon, joint, or bone lies beyond the limits of conventional techniques. We report our results using free tissue transfer as an adjunct to lower extremity vascular reconstruction in patients with complex ischemic or infected wounds.

METHODS

Retrospective chart review of patient and wound characteristics.

RESULTS

From January 1992 to June 1996, 585 procedures were performed in 544 patients, including 27 free flaps in 26 patients: 17 free flaps combined with distal bypass (7 staged, 10 simultaneous) and 10 isolated free flaps. Flap donor sites included radial forearm (8), latissimus dorsi (7), rectus abdominus (9), and scapula (3). Surgical indications included extensive ischemic/neurotrophic ulcers, and nonhealing vein graft harvest incision or transmetatarsal amputation site. Mean area of tissue loss was 70 cm2, mean ulcer duration was 5 months, and 92% of patients had exposed tendon, joint, or bone. During a mean follow-up of 14 months, 2 patients died of cardiopulmonary disease and 3 flaps failed, resulting in below-knee amputation. Six flaps were revised for graft stenosis (1), venous thrombosis (1), or flap edge necrosis (4). Limb salvage rate was 70% at 24 months by life-table analysis. Functional ambulation was achieved in 21 of 24 (88%) patients, including 7 of 8 with diabetes, end-stage renal disease, and heel ulcers.

CONCLUSION

In select ambulatory patients with large soft-tissue defects and exposed deep structures, functional limb salvage is obtainable in more than 80% of patients. For lesions not amenable to vascular reconstruction with conventional methods of wound coverage, free tissue transfer extends the limits of limb salvage and is a viable alternative to amputation.

Salvage of femoropedal bypass graft complicated by interval gangrene and vein graft blowout using a flow-through radial forearm fasciocutaneous free flap

We report the case of a 71-year-old man who had interval gangrene of his calf with subsequent vein graft blowout 3 months after undergoing a femoral-to-dorsalis pedis saphenous vein bypass grafting procedure. To provide wound coverage, restore vascular continuity, and preserve functional ambulation, a flow-through radial forearm fasciocutaneous free flap was interposed between cut ends of the bypass graft. Venous drainage of the flap was from the cephalic vein to the popliteal vein. At 1 month after the operation, the patient had complete wound healing and began to ambulate. At 11 months an asymptomatic high-grade stenosis in the distal radial artery segment of the reconstruction was successfully treated with percutaneous angioplasty. After 22 months of follow-up there have been no further complications, and the patient continues to have full, functional ambulation. The radial forearm flow-through free flap allows single-stage restoration of bypass graft continuity and coverage of extensive, complex tissue defects. This technique represents a novel approach to this difficult problem and provides a viable alternative to major limb amputation.

Combined vascular reconstruction and microvascular muscle flap transfer for salvage of ischaemic legs with major tissue loss and wound complications

OBJECTIVE

To assess the safety and short-term efficacy of combined vascular revascularisation and free microvascular muscle flap transfer in patients with advanced lower limb ischaemia caused by occlusive arterial disease.

DESIGN

A prospective follow-up study of 2-72 months.

SETTING

Academic referral centre.

MATERIALS

Consecutive first 15 patients with extensive tissue loss due to advanced leg ischaemia or wound complications after bypass surgery.

CHIEF OUTCOME MEASURES

Graft patency, free tissue transfer viability, amputation rate.

MAIN RESULTS

There was no perioperative mortality. The cumulative rates for secondary vascular patency, microvascular graft viability and limb salvage were 80%, 87% and 76% at one year provided that vessels and grafts that were functioning at the time of amputation were considered lost to follow-up rather than failed at that point. If, however, amputation was also regarded as vessel and graft failure the corresponding rates were 68%, 62% and 76%, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

Combining microvascular muscle flap transfer with vascular reconstruction for salvage of legs with extended ischaemic tissue loss or wound complications after bypass surgery gave acceptable preliminary results and deserves an attempt in selected patients.