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Novel Insights on the Toxicity of Phycotoxins on the Gut through the Targeting of Enteric Glial Cells. Mar Drugs 2019; 17:md17070429. [PMID: 31340532 PMCID: PMC6669610 DOI: 10.3390/md17070429] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2019] [Revised: 07/15/2019] [Accepted: 07/19/2019] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
In vitro and in vivo studies have shown that phycotoxins can impact intestinal epithelial cells and can cross the intestinal barrier to some extent. Therefore, phycotoxins can reach cells underlying the epithelium, such as enteric glial cells (EGCs), which are involved in gut homeostasis, motility, and barrier integrity. This study compared the toxicological effects of pectenotoxin-2 (PTX2), yessotoxin (YTX), okadaic acid (OA), azaspiracid-1 (AZA1), 13-desmethyl-spirolide C (SPX), and palytoxin (PlTX) on the rat EGC cell line CRL2690. Cell viability, morphology, oxidative stress, inflammation, cell cycle, and specific glial markers were evaluated using RT-qPCR and high content analysis (HCA) approaches. PTX2, YTX, OA, AZA1, and PlTX induced neurite alterations, oxidative stress, cell cycle disturbance, and increase of specific EGC markers. An inflammatory response for YTX, OA, and AZA1 was suggested by the nuclear translocation of NF-κB. Caspase-3-dependent apoptosis and induction of DNA double strand breaks (γH2AX) were also observed with PTX2, YTX, OA, and AZA1. These findings suggest that PTX2, YTX, OA, AZA1, and PlTX may affect intestinal barrier integrity through alterations of the human enteric glial system. Our results provide novel insight into the toxicological effects of phycotoxins on the gut.
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Holland WC, Litaker RW, Tomas CR, Kibler SR, Place AR, Davenport ED, Tester PA. Differences in the toxicity of six Gambierdiscus (Dinophyceae) species measured using an in vitro human erythrocyte lysis assay. Toxicon 2013; 65:15-33. [PMID: 23313447 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2012.12.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2012] [Revised: 12/04/2012] [Accepted: 12/05/2012] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
This study examined the toxicity of six Gambierdiscus species (Gambierdiscus belizeanus, Gambierdiscus caribaeus, Gambierdiscus carolinianus, Gambierdiscus carpenteri, Gambierdiscus ribotype 2 and Gambierdiscus ruetzleri) using a human erythrocyte lysis assay. In all, 56 isolates were tested. The results showed certain species were significantly more toxic than others. Depending on the species, hemolytic activity consistently increased by ∼7-40% from log phase growth to late log - early stationary growth phase and then declined in mid-stationary growth phase. Increasing growth temperatures from 20 to 31 °C for clones of G. caribaeus showed only a slight increase in hemolytic activity between 20 and 27 °C. Hemolytic activity in the G. carolinianus isolates from different regions grown over the same 20-31 °C range remained constant. These data suggest that growth temperature is not a significant factor in modulating the inter-isolate and interspecific differences in hemolytic activity. The hemolytic activity of various isolates measured repeatedly over a 2 year period remained constant, consistent with the hemolytic compounds being constitutively produced and under strong genetic control. Depending on species, greater than 60-90% of the total hemolytic activity was initially associated with the cell membranes but diffused into solution over a 24 h assay incubation period at 4 °C. These findings suggest that hemolytic compounds produced by Gambierdiscus isolates were held in membrane bound vesicles as reported for brevetoxins produced by Karenia brevis. Gambierdiscus isolates obtained from other parts of the world exhibited hemolytic activities comparable to those found in the Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico confirming the range of toxicities is similar among Gambierdiscus species worldwide. Experiments using specific inhibitors of the MTX pathway and purified MTX, Gambierdiscus whole cell extracts, and hydrophilic cell extracts containing MTX, were consistent with MTX as the primary hemolytic compound produced by Gambierdiscus species. While the results from inhibition studies require validation by LC-MS analysis, the available data strongly suggest differences in hemolytic activity observed in this study reflect maitotoxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- William C Holland
- National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Ocean Service, National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science, Center for Coastal Fisheries and Habitat Research, 101 Pivers Island Road, Beaufort, NC 28516, USA
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Rubiolo JA, López-Alonso H, Vega FV, Vieytes MR, Botana LM. Okadaic acid and dinophysis toxin 2 have differential toxicological effects in hepatic cell lines inducing cell cycle arrest, at G0/G1 or G2/M with aberrant mitosis depending on the cell line. Arch Toxicol 2011; 85:1541-50. [PMID: 21512803 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-011-0702-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2010] [Accepted: 03/31/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Okadaic acid is one of the toxins responsible for the human intoxication known as diarrhetic shellfish poisoning, which appears after the consumption of contaminated shellfish. The main diarrhetic shellfish poisoning toxins are okadaic acid, dinophysistoxin-1, -2, and -3. In vivo, after intraperitoneal injection, dinophysistoxin-2 is approximately 40% less toxic than okadaic acid in mice. The cytotoxic and genotoxic effect of okadaic acid varies very significantly in different cell lines, so similar responses could be expected for dinophysistoxin-2. In order to determine whether this was the case, we studied the effect of okadaic acid and dinophysistoxin-2 in two hepatic cell lines (HepG2 and Clone 9). The cytotoxicity of these toxins, as well as their effects on the cell cycle and its regulation on both cell lines, were determined. Okadaic acid and dinophysistoxin-2 resulted to be equipotent in clone 9 cultures, while okadaic acid was more potent than dinophysistoxin-2 in HepG2 cell cultures. Both toxins had opposite effects on the cell cycle; they arrested the cell cycle of clone 9 cells in G2/M inducing aberrant mitosis while arresting the cell cycle of HepG2 in G0/G1. When the effect of the toxins on p53 subcellular distribution was studied, p53 was detected in the nuclei of both cell types. The effect of the toxins on the gene expression of cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases was different for both cell lines. The toxins induced an increase in gene expression of cyclins A, B, and D in clone 9 cells while they induced a decrease in cyclins A and B in HepG2 cells. They also induced a decrease in cyclin-dependent kinase 1 in HepG2 cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- J A Rubiolo
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain
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Caillaud A, Yasumoto T, Diogène J. Detection and quantification of maitotoxin-like compounds using a neuroblastoma (Neuro-2a) cell based assay. Application to the screening of maitotoxin-like compounds in Gambierdiscus spp. Toxicon 2010; 56:36-44. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2010.03.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2009] [Revised: 02/26/2010] [Accepted: 03/03/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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Caillaud A, Cañete E, de la Iglesia P, Giménez G, Diogène J. Cell-based assay coupled with chromatographic fractioning: a strategy for marine toxins detection in natural samples. Toxicol In Vitro 2009; 23:1591-6. [PMID: 19720129 DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2009.08.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2008] [Revised: 07/23/2009] [Accepted: 08/25/2009] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Cell-based assays (CBA) have been proposed for the evaluation of toxicity caused by marine toxins in natural samples (fish, shellfish and microalgae). However, their application has been hindered due to the interferences present in biological matrices that may cause cellular response and interfere in toxicity evaluation. This work reviews in an extensive introduction the use of CBA for toxicity evaluation of marine toxins. Afterwards, the coupling of chromatographic fractioning with neuroblastoma Neuro-2a CBA is presented to enhance the applicability of CBA for complex matrices. Examples of application are provided for mussel samples (Mytilus galloprovincialis) and microalgae (Gambierdiscus sp.), and the results demonstrated the great potential of the combined strategy for reliable toxicological evaluation without ethical concern. Fractioning of an equivalent of 72 mg eq mL(-1) of mussel sample allowed the identification of non-toxic and toxic fractions whereas only 2.5mg eq mL(-1) of non-purified mussel sample was responsible for 20% of cell mortality. Furthermore, the application of CBA allowed selectively distinguishing between ciguatoxin-like and other unspecific toxicity in Gambierdiscus sp. extract.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Caillaud
- IRTA, C. Poble Nou, Km 5.5, 43540 Sant Carles de la Ràpita, Spain
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Cañete E, Diogène J. Comparative study of the use of neuroblastoma cells (Neuro-2a) and neuroblastoma×glioma hybrid cells (NG108-15) for the toxic effect quantification of marine toxins. Toxicon 2008; 52:541-50. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2008.06.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2008] [Revised: 06/04/2008] [Accepted: 06/30/2008] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Saoudi M, Abdelmouleh A, Jamoussi K, Kammoun A, El Feki A. Hematological Toxicity Associated with Tissue Extract from Poisonous FishLagocephalus lagocephalus-Influence on Erythrocyte Function in Wistar Rats. J Food Sci 2008; 73:H155-9. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1750-3841.2008.00885.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Campàs M, Marty JL. Enzyme sensor for the electrochemical detection of the marine toxin okadaic acid. Anal Chim Acta 2007; 605:87-93. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2007.10.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2007] [Revised: 10/16/2007] [Accepted: 10/20/2007] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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Naves JL, Prado MP, Rangel M, De Sanctis B, Machado-Santelli G, Freitas JC. Cytotoxicity in the marine dinoflagellate Prorocentrum mexicanum from Brazil. Comp Biochem Physiol C Toxicol Pharmacol 2006; 143:73-7. [PMID: 16458613 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpc.2005.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2005] [Revised: 12/11/2005] [Accepted: 12/18/2005] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
The microscopic algae in the oceans are crucial food for filter feeding bivalve shellfish (oysters, mussels, scallops, clams, etc.) as well as for the larvae of commercially important crustaceans. Some species of microalgae have the capacity to produce potent toxins, such as saxitoxins and ciguatoxins, which may intoxicate humans. Among the marine phytoplankton, the dinoflagellates are the main toxin producers. Studies on the marine phytoplankton from the São Sebastião Channel, southeastern coast of Brazil, showed a great diversity of dinoflagellates. Some species were collected and cultured at the Marine Biology Center of the São Paulo University (USP). The polar (PEs) (aqueous) and apolar (AEs) (methylene chloride) extracts of the cultivated dinoflagellate species were tested on different stages of the sea urchin development, on mouse erythrocytes and on microfilaments organization in a neuroblastoma cell line. Prorocentrum mexicanum PE and AE induced cells anomalies and cell division inhibition of sea urchin eggs at EC50 of 78.75 microg/mL (95% CI from 32.56 to 190.50) and 22.50 microg/mL (95% CI from 2.96 to 170.80) respectively (n=3). Both AE and PE of P. mexicanum induced hemolysis with EC50 of 65.07 microg/mL (95% CI from 27.40 to 154.60) and 84.29 microg/mL (95% CI from 53.26 to 133.40 microg/mL), respectively. P. mexicanum PE was tested in immunofluorescence for actin filaments organization in neuroblastoma cultured cell.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeanete L Naves
- Departamento de Fisiologia, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade de São Paulo, Rua do Matão, travessa 14, no 321, CEP 05508-900, São Paulo, Brasil.
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Marine Biotoxins of Algal Origin and Seafood Safety. JOURNAL OF AQUATIC FOOD PRODUCT TECHNOLOGY 2003. [DOI: 10.1300/j030v12n01_03] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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Okada T, Narai A, Matsunaga S, Fusetani N, Shimizu M. Assessment of the marine toxins by monitoring the integrity of human intestinal Caco-2 cell monolayers. Toxicol In Vitro 2000; 14:219-26. [PMID: 10806372 DOI: 10.1016/s0887-2333(00)00014-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The effects of marine substances with various cytotoxic mechanisms on the integrity of the human intestinal Caco-2 cell monolayer were examined by measuring the transepithelial electrical resistance (TEER). TEER was rapidly decreased by apical exposure of the monolayers to discodermin A, a membrane pore-forming substance. The decrease in TEER occurred in an earlier stage of incubation than the release of intracellular lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) which is commonly used as a parameter of cell damage or death. Mycalolide B (an actin-depolymerizing substance), calyculin A and okadaic acid (protein phosphatase inhibitors) also rapidly decreased the TEER value, although no cell membrane damage or resultant LDH release by these toxicants were detected. The TEER decrease caused by the toxicants was associated with the increased transepithelial permeability of the cell monolayer. Treatment with these toxicants, except calyculin A, caused morphological changes in the intracellular actin filament, suggesting that these toxicants altered the cytoskeletal structure, by which the tight junction was opened. Calyculin A was likely to loosen the cellular junctions rapidly and induce cell detachment from the monolayer. Although onnamide A, a protein synthesis inhibitor, did not cause any decrease in TEER, at least during a 90-min incubation, TEER sensitively reflects the cytotoxic effects of various types of toxicants with acute toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Okada
- Department of Applied Biological Chemistry, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Japan
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Oteri G, Stammati A, Zampaglioni F, Zucco F. Evaluation of the use of two human cell lines for okadaic acid and DTX-1 determination by cytotoxicity assays and damage characterization. NATURAL TOXINS 1999; 6:197-209. [PMID: 10398517 DOI: 10.1002/(sici)1522-7189(199809/10)6:5<197::aid-nt21>3.0.co;2-n] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Two human cell lines have been used, HEp-2 and (de)differentiated Caco-2, derived from a larynx and a colon carcinoma, respectively, with the aim of evaluating and characterizing the cytotoxicity of okadaic acid (OA) and related toxins. Effects of OA and dinophysistoxin-1 (DTX-1) on cell viability (neutral red uptake) and on cell morphology/cytoskeleton structure have been observed in both cell lines, though at different time exposures and with different concentrations. The morphological alteration was detected earlier than the viability inhibition in HEp-2 cells with both toxins and in Caco-2 cells with DTX-1. HEp-2 cells have shown to be more sensitive than the intestinal cell line and thus possibly suitable for screening of contaminated samples, while Caco-2 cells could be used for further investigating the possible mechanisms involved in diarrhoeic shellfish poisoning (DSP) toxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Oteri
- Laboratorio di Tossicologia Comparata ed Ecotossicologia, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Roma, Italia
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Rapid decrease in transepithelial electrical resistance of human intestinal Caco-2 cell monolayers by cytotoxic membrane perturbents. Toxicol In Vitro 1997; 11:347-54. [DOI: 10.1016/s0887-2333(97)00026-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/03/1997] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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Pouchus YF, Amzil Z, Marcaillou-Le Baut C, James KJ, Verbist JF. Specificity of the test based on modification of cell morphology for detection of lipophilic inhibitors of protein phosphatases. Toxicon 1997; 35:1137-42. [PMID: 9248012 DOI: 10.1016/s0041-0101(96)00211-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
The test based on morphological changes in KB cells was assayed with different toxins. Only lipophilic inhibitors of protein phosphatases, such as okadaic acid or calyculin A, induced visible changes in cell morphology. The activity of contaminated mussel extracts on KB cells was evaluated comparatively by direct interpretation of morphological changes and by a colorimetric method estimating the number of viable cells after staining. The latter technique revealed interferences (not detected by the former) with mussel cytotoxins. These results show that the technique, based on determination of the minimal active concentration of toxic extracts inducing morphological changes, is more specific, faster and preferable to the determination of IC50 for the detection of protein phosphatase inhibitors in shellfish.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y F Pouchus
- University of Nantes, SMAB-URMII, ISOMer, Faculty of Pharmacy, France
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Bouaïcha N, Ammar M, Hennion MC, Sandra P. A new method for determination of maitotoxin by capillary zone electrophoresis with ultraviolet detection. Toxicon 1997; 35:955-62. [PMID: 9241788 DOI: 10.1016/s0041-0101(96)00145-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Capillary zone electrophoresis with UV detection was applied to the rapid and efficient separation of an underivatized phycotoxin, maitotoxin, associated with ciguateric fish poisoning. Highly sensitive detection was obtained by UV absorption at 195 nm. A detection limit of 50 pg of maitotoxin was achieved at this wavelength. Analysis involved using a fused silica capillary coated with a hydrophobic phase, polyvinylalcohols. Confirmation of the electrophoretic peak of maitotoxin was further evaluated by cytotoxicity on a mammalian fibroblastic cell line, BHK 21 C13.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Bouaïcha
- CEMATMA, Laboratoire de Chimie Analytique, ESPCI, Paris, France
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Bouaïcha N, Hennion MC, Sandra P. Determination of okadaic acid by micellar electrokinetic chromatography with ultraviolet detection. Toxicon 1997; 35:273-81. [PMID: 9080584 DOI: 10.1016/s0041-0101(96)00069-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Micellar electrokinetic chromatography (MEKC) with ultraviolet (UV) detection was applied for the determination of non-derivatized phycotoxins associated with diarrhoetic shellfish poisoning. A detection limit for 40 pg of okadaic acid (OA) was achieved. The UV intensities of this toxin measured at 200 nm showed good linearity in the range 40-640 pg. OA was detected in mussels spiked with 10 ng/g whole tissue. The presence of OA and dinophysistoxin-2 was observed in the crude extract of the dinoflagellate Prorocentrum lima.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Bouaïcha
- CEMATMA, Laboratoire de Chimie Analytique, ESPCI, Paris, France
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Fessard V, Grosse Y, Pfohl-Leszkowicz A, Puiseux-Dao S. Okadaic acid treatment induces DNA adduct formation in BHK21 C13 fibroblasts and HESV keratinocytes. Mutat Res 1996; 361:133-41. [PMID: 8980699 DOI: 10.1016/s0165-1161(96)90248-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Okadaic acid (OA), a toxin involved in diarrhetic shellfish poisoning (DSP), has been shown to be a potent tumor promoter in mouse skin and glandular stomach. However, more recent studies tended to show that OA can also act as a genotoxic. In this study, using the 32P-postlabelling method, DNA adduct formation was obtained in two cell lines (BHK21 C13 fibroblasts and HESV keratinocytes) after treatment by OA for 24 h with a dose range between 0.01 and 5 nM. Nineteen adducts were observed with BHK21 C13 cells and 15 with HESV ones. Low doses did not show adduct formation. Intermediate doses have given the most important number of adducts and with higher doses, the number of adducts decreased dose dependently. Ten adducts were similar in the two strains while 9 were specific of BHK21 C13 cell line and 5 of HESV one. The highest total DNA adduct level from origin parts was estimated at 95.6 adducts/10(9) nucleotides for BHK21 C13 fibroblasts (1 nM OA treatment) and 31.1 adducts/10(9) nucleotides for HESV keratinocytes (0.5 nM OA treatment). In this case, the major adduct (number 3) represented 20% for the fibroblastic cell line and 30% for the keratinocytic strain. The genotoxic effect of OA showed in this study should lead to a more careful survey of DSP outbreaks.
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Affiliation(s)
- V Fessard
- Laboratoire de Toxicologie Marine, Faculté de Médecine, Nice, France
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