THE METABOLISM OF L-RHAMNOSE IN ESCHERICHIA COLI. II. L-RHAMNULOSE KINASE

X-ray structure and characterization of a probiotic Lactobacillus rhamnosus Probio-M9 L-rhamnose isomerase

A recombinant L-rhamnose isomerase (L-RhI) from probiotic Lactobacillus rhamnosus Probio-M9 (L. rhamnosus Probio-M9) was expressed. L. rhamnosus Probio-M9 was isolated from human colostrum and identified as a probiotic lactic acid bacterium, which can grow using L-rhamnose. L-RhI is one of the enzymes involved in L-rhamnose metabolism and catalyzes the reversible isomerization between L-rhamnose and L-rhamnulose. Some L-RhIs were reported to catalyze isomerization not only between L-rhamnose and L-rhamnulose but also between D-allulose and D-allose, which are known as rare sugars. Those L-RhIs are attractive enzymes for rare sugar production and have the potential to be further improved by enzyme engineering; however, the known crystal structures of L-RhIs recognizing rare sugars are limited. In addition, the optimum pH levels of most reported L-RhIs are basic rather than neutral, and such a basic condition causes non-enzymatic aldose-ketose isomerization, resulting in unexpected by-products. Herein, we report the crystal structures of L. rhamnosus Probio-M9 L-RhI (LrL-RhI) in complexes with L-rhamnose, D-allulose, and D-allose, which show enzyme activity toward L-rhamnose, D-allulose, and D-allose in acidic conditions, though the activity toward D-allose was low. In the complex with L-rhamnose, L-rhamnopyranose was found in the catalytic site, showing favorable recognition for catalysis. In the complex with D-allulose, D-allulofuranose and ring-opened D-allulose were observed in the catalytic site. However, bound D-allose in the pyranose form was found in the catalytic site of the complex with D-allose, which was unfavorable for recognition, like an inhibition mode. The structure of the complex may explain the low activity toward D-allose. KEY POINTS: • Crystal structures of LrL-RhI in complexes with substrates were determined. • LrL-RhI exhibits enzyme activity toward L-rhamnose, D-allulose, and D-allose. • The LrL-RhI is active in acidic conditions.

Engineering a filamentous fungus for L-rhamnose extraction

L-Rhamnose is a high value rare sugar that is used as such or after chemical conversions. It is enriched in several biomass fractions such as the pectic polysaccharides rhamnogalacturonan I and II and in naringin, hesperidin, rutin, quercitrin and ulvan. We engineered the filamentous fungus Aspergillus niger to not consume L-rhamnose, while it is still able to produce the enzymes for the hydrolysis of L-rhamnose rich biomass. As a result we present a strain that can be used for the extraction of L-rhamnose in a consolidated process. In the process the biomass is hydrolysed to the monomeric sugars which are consumed by the fungus leaving the L-rhamnose.

Characterization of NADP+-specific L-rhamnose dehydrogenase from the thermoacidophilic Archaeon Thermoplasma acidophilum

Thermoplasma acidophilum utilizes L-rhamnose as a sole carbon source. To determine the metabolic pathway of L-rhamnose in Archaea, we identified and characterized L-rhamnose dehydrogenase (RhaD) in T. acidophilum. Ta0747P gene, which encodes the putative T. acidophilum RhaD (Ta_RhaD) enzyme belonging to the short-chain dehydrogenase/reductase family, was expressed in E. coli as an active enzyme catalyzing the oxidation of L-rhamnose to L-rhamnono-1,4-lactone. Analysis of catalytic properties revealed that Ta_RhaD oxidized L-rhamnose, L-lyxose, and L-mannose using only NADP(+) as a cofactor, which is different from NAD(+)/NADP(+)-specific bacterial RhaDs and NAD(+)-specific eukaryal RhaDs. Ta_RhaD showed the highest activity toward L-rhamnose at 60 °C and pH 7. The K (m) and k (cat) values were 0.46 mM, 1,341.3 min(-1) for L-rhamnose and 0.1 mM, 1,027.2 min(-1) for NADP(+), respectively. Phylogenetic analysis indicated that branched lineages of archaeal RhaD are quite distinct from those of Bacteria and Eukarya. This is the first report on the identification and characterization of NADP(+)-specific RhaD.

Characterisation of the gene cluster for l-rhamnose catabolism in the yeast Scheffersomyces (Pichia) stipitis

In Scheffersomyces (Pichia) stipitis and related fungal species the genes for L-rhamnose catabolism RHA1, LRA2, LRA3 and LRA4 but not LADH are clustered. We find that located next to the cluster is a transcription factor, TRC1, which is conserved among related species. Our transcriptome analysis shows that all the catabolic genes and all genes of the cluster are up-regulated on L-rhamnose. Among genes that were also up-regulated on L-rhamnose were two transcription factors including the TRC1. In addition, in 16 out of the 32 analysed fungal species only RHA1, LRA2 and LRA3 are physically clustered. The clustering of RHA1, LRA3 and TRC1 is also conserved in species not closely related to S. stipitis. Since the LRA4 is often not part of the cluster and it has several paralogues in L-rhamnose utilising yeasts we analysed the function of one of the paralogues, LRA41 by heterologous expression and biochemical characterization. Lra41p has similar catalytic properties as the Lra4p but the transcript was not up-regulated on L-rhamnose. The RHA1, LRA2, LRA4 and LADH genes were previously characterised in S. stipitis. We expressed the L-rhamnonate dehydratase, Lra3p, in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, estimated the kinetic constants of the protein and showed that it indeed has activity with L-rhamnonate.

A genetic locus necessary for rhamnose uptake and catabolism in Rhizobium leguminosarum bv. trifolii

Rhizobium leguminosarum bv. trifolii mutants unable to catabolize the methyl-pentose rhamnose are unable to compete effectively for nodule occupancy. In this work we show that the locus responsible for the transport and catabolism of rhamnose spans 10,959 bp. Mutations in this region were generated by transposon mutagenesis, and representative mutants were characterized. The locus contains genes coding for an ABC-type transporter, a putative dehydrogenase, a probable isomerase, and a sugar kinase necessary for the transport and subsequent catabolism of rhamnose. The regulation of these genes, which are inducible by rhamnose, is carried out in part by a DeoR-type negative regulator (RhaR) that is encoded within the same transcript as the ABC-type transporter but is separated from the structural genes encoding the transporter by a terminator-like sequence. RNA dot blot analysis demonstrated that this terminator-like sequence is correlated with transcript attenuation only under noninducing conditions. Transport assays utilizing tritiated rhamnose demonstrated that uptake of rhamnose was inducible and dependent upon the presence of the ABC transporter at this locus. Phenotypic analyses of representative mutants from this locus provide genetic evidence that the catabolism of rhamnose differs from previously described methyl-pentose catabolic pathways.

Proton-linked L-rhamnose transport, and its comparison with L-fucose transport in Enterobacteriaceae

1. An alkaline pH change occurred when L-rhamnose, L-mannose or L-lyxose was added to L-rhamnose-grown energy-depleted suspensions of strains of Escherichia coli. This is diagnostic of sugar-H+ symport activity. 2. L-Rhamnose, L-mannose and L-lyxose were inducers of the sugar-H+ symport and of L-[14C]rhamnose transport activity. L-Rhamnose also induced the biochemically and genetically distinct L-fucose-H+ symport activity in strains competent for L-rhamnose metabolism. 3. Steady-state kinetic measurements showed that L-mannose and L-lyxose were competitive inhibitors (alternative substrates) for the L-rhamnose transport system, and that L-galactose and D-arabinose were competitive inhibitors (alternative substrates) for the L-fucose transport system. Additional measurements with other sugars of related structure defined the different substrate specificities of the two transport systems. 4. The relative rates of H+ symport and of sugar metabolism, and the relative values of their kinetic parameters, suggested that the physiological role of the transport activity was primarily for utilization of L-rhamnose, not for L-mannose or L-lyxose. 5. L-Rhamnose transport into subcellular vesicles of E. coli was dependent on respiration, was optimal at pH 7, and was inhibited by protonophores and ionophores. It was insensitive to N-ethylmaleimide or cytochalasin B. 6. L-Rhamnose, L-mannose and L-lyxose each elicited an alkaline pH change when added to energy-depleted suspensions of L-rhamnose-grown Salmonella typhimurium LT2, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Klebsiella aerogenes, Erwinia carotovora carotovora and Erwinia carotovora atroseptica. The relative rates of subsequent acidification varied, depending on both the organism and the sugar. L-Fucose promoted an alkaline pH change in all the L-rhamnose-induced organisms except the Erwinia species. No L-rhamnose-H+ symport occurred in any organism grown on L-fucose. 7. All these results showed that L-rhamnose transport into the micro-organisms occurred by a system different from that for L-fucose transport. Both systems are energized by the trans-membrane electrochemical gradient of protons. 8. Neither steady-state kinetic measurements nor binding-protein assays revealed the existence of a second L-rhamnose transport system in E. coli.

Anaerobic metabolism of the L-rhamnose fermentation product 1,2-propanediol in Salmonella typhimurium

When grown anaerobically on L-rhamnose, Salmonella typhimurium excreted 1,2-propanediol as a fermentation product. Upon exhaustion of the methyl pentose, 1,2-propanediol was recaptured and further metabolized, provided the culture was kept under anaerobic conditions. n-Propanol and propionate were found in the medium as end products of this process at concentrations one-half that of 1,2-propanediol. As in Klebsiella pneumoniae (T. Toraya, S. Honda, and S. Fukui, J. Bacteriol. 139:39-47, 1979), a diol dehydratase which transforms 1,2-propanediol to propionaldehyde and the enzymes involved in a dismutation that converts propionaldehyde to n-propanol and propionate were induced in S. typhimurium cultures able to transform 1,2-propanediol anaerobically.

Metabolism of L-fucose and L-rhamnose in Escherichia coli: aerobic-anaerobic regulation of L-lactaldehyde dissimilation

L-Lactaldehyde is a branching point in the metabolic pathway of L-fucose and L-rhamnose utilization. Under aerobic conditions, L-lactaldehyde is oxidized to L-lactate by the enzyme lactaldehyde dehydrogenase, while under anaerobic conditions, L-lactaldehyde is reduced to L-1,2-propanediol by the enzyme propanediol oxidoreductase. Aerobic growth on either of the methyl pentoses induces a lactaldehyde dehydrogenase enzyme which is inhibited by NADH and is very stable under anaerobic conditions. In the absence of oxygen, the cell shifts from the oxidation of L-lactaldehyde to its reduction, owing to both the induction of propanediol oxidoreductase activity and the decrease in the NAD/NADH ratio. The oxidation of L-lactaldehyde to L-lactate is again restored upon a change to aerobic conditions. In this case, only the NAD/NADH ratio may be invoked as a regulatory mechanism, since both enzymes remain active after this change. Experimental evidence in the presence of rhamnose with mutants unable to produce L-lactaldehyde and mutants capable of producing but not further metabolizing it points toward L-lactaldehyde as the effector molecule in the induction of lactaldehyde dehydrogenase. Analysis of a temperature-sensitive mutation affecting the synthesis of lactaldehyde dehydrogenase permitted us to locate an apparently single regulator gene linked to the ald locus at 31 min and probably acting as a positive control element on the expression of the structural gene.

Cross-induction of the L-fucose system by L-rhamnose in Escherichia coli

Dissimilation of L-fucose as a carbon and energy source by Escherichia coli involves a permease, an isomerase, a kinase, and an aldolase encoded by the fuc regulon at minute 60.2. Utilization of L-rhamnose involves a similar set of proteins encoded by the rha operon at minute 87.7. Both pathways lead to the formation of L-lactaldehyde and dihydroxyacetone phosphate. A common NAD-linked oxidoreductase encoded by fucO serves to reduce L-lactaldehyde to L-1,2-propanediol under anaerobic growth conditions, irrespective of whether the aldehyde is derived from fucose or rhamnose. In this study it was shown that anaerobic growth on rhamnose induces expression of not only the fucO gene but also the entire fuc regulon. Rhamnose is unable to induce the fuc genes in mutants defective in rhaA (encoding L-rhamnose isomerase), rhaB (encoding L-rhamnulose kinase), rhaD (encoding L-rhamnulose 1-phosphate aldolase), rhaR (encoding the positive regulator for the rha structural genes), or fucR (encoding the positive for the fuc regulon). Thus, cross-induction of the L-fucose enzymes by rhamnose requires formation of L-lactaldehyde; either the aldehyde itself or the L-fuculose 1-phosphate (known to be an effector) formed from it then interacts with the fucR-encoded protein to induce the fuc regulon.

Propanediol oxidoreductases of Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae and Salmonella typhimurium. Aspects of interspecies structural and regulatory differentiation

The enzyme propanediol oxidoreductase, which converts the lactaldehyde formed in the metabolism of fucose and rhamnose into propane-1,2-diol under anaerobic conditions, was investigated in Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae and Salmonella typhimurium. Structural analysis indicated that the enzymes of E. coli and K. pneumoniae have the same Mr and pI, whereas that of Salm. typhimurium also has the same Mr but a slightly different pI. One-dimensional peptide mapping showed identity between the E. coli and K. pneumoniae enzymes when digested with alpha-chymotrypsin, Staphylococcus aureus V8 proteinase or subtilisin. In the case of Salm. typhimurium, this held only for the subtilisin-digested enzymes, indicating that the hydrophobic regions were preserved to a considerable extent. Anaerobically, the three species induced an active propanediol oxidoreductase when grown on fucose or rhamnose. An inactive propanediol oxidoreductase was induced in Salm. typhimurium by either fucose or rhamnose under aerobic conditions, and this was activated once anaerobiosis was established. An inactive propanediol oxidoreductase was also induced in E. coli under aerobic conditions, but only by growth on fucose. The inactive enzyme was not induced by either of the sugars in K. pneumoniae.

Fermentation mechanism of fucose and rhamnose in Salmonella typhimurium and Klebsiella pneumoniae

An equimolar amount of 1,2-propanediol was detected in the medium when Salmonella typhimurium or Klebsiella pneumoniae fermented L-fucose or L-rhamnose. These metabolic conditions induced a propanediol oxidoreductase that converted the lactaldehyde formed in the dissimilation of either sugar into the diol. The enzyme was further identified by cross-reaction with antibodies against Escherichia coli propanediol oxidoreductase. This indicates that L-fucose and L-rhamnose fermentation takes place in these species by 1,2-propanediol production and excretion.

Dual control of a common L-1,2-propanediol oxidoreductase by L-fucose and L-rhamnose in Escherichia coli

Anaerobic growth of Escherichia coli on L-fucose or L-rhamnose as the sole source of carbon and energy depends on the regeneration of NAD from NADH by disposing the intermediate L-lactaldehyde as L-1,2-propanediol. The two parallel pathways, with their own permeases and enzymes encoded by two widely separated gene clusters, appear to share a single enzyme that catalyzes the formation of L-1,2-propanediol. Although this oxidoreductase is encoded by a gene at the fuc locus, the enzyme is inducible by both L-fucose and L-rhamnose. The inducibility by L-rhamnose is controlled by a gene at the rha locus with no other known functions, since the aerobic growth rate on L-rhamnose remains normal. L-1,2-Propanediol oxidoreductase activity is inducible only anaerobically, and the effect of the two methylpentoses operates at different levels: L-fucose exerts its influence post-transcriptionally; L-rhamnose exerts its influence transcriptionally.

Metabolism of L-fucose and L-rhamnose in Escherichia coli: differences in induction of propanediol oxidoreductase

Escherichia coli is capable of growing on L-fucose or L-rhamnose as a sole source of carbon and energy. When grown under anaerobic conditions on either sugar, a nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide-linked L-lactaldehyde:propanediol oxidoreductase activity is induced. The functioning of this enzyme results in the regeneration of oxidized nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide. Conditions of induction of the enzyme activity were studied and were found to display different characteristics on each sugar. In the rhamnose-grown cells, the increase in enzyme activity detected under inducing conditions was accompanied by the synthesis of propanediol oxidoreductase, as measured by the appearance in the extracts of a protein that reacts with propanediol oxidoreductase antibodies. In contrast, in fucose-grown cells, the level of propanediol oxidoreductase as measured by enzyme antibody-reacting material was high under noninducing and inducing conditions. Thus, the increase in enzyme activity detected in going from noninducing to inducing conditions in fucose-grown cells did not depend on the appearance of the specific protein but on the activation of the propanediol oxidoreductase already present in the cells in an inactive form. The propanediol oxidoreductase of both homologous systems should consequently be regulated by different control mechanisms.