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Dawoud MHS, Mannaa IS, Abdel-Daim A, Sweed NM. Integrating Artificial Intelligence with Quality by Design in the Formulation of Lecithin/Chitosan Nanoparticles of a Poorly Water-Soluble Drug. AAPS PharmSciTech 2023; 24:169. [PMID: 37552427 DOI: 10.1208/s12249-023-02609-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2023] [Accepted: 06/25/2023] [Indexed: 08/09/2023] Open
Abstract
The aim of the current study is to explore the potential of artificial intelligence (AI) when integrated with Quality by Design (QbD) approach in the formulation of a poorly water-soluble drug, for its potential use in carcinoma. Silymarin is used as a model drug for its potential effectiveness in liver cancer. A detailed QbD approach was applied. The effect of the critical process parameters was studied on each of the particle size, size distribution, and entrapment efficiency. Response surface designs were applied in the screening and optimization of lecithin/chitosan nanoparticles, to obtain an optimized formula. The release rate was tested, where artificial neural network models were used to predict the % release of the drug from the optimized formula at different time intervals. The optimized formula was tested for its cytotoxicity. A design space was established, with an optimized formula having a molar ratio of 18.33:1 lecithin:chitosan and 38.35 mg silymarin. This resulted in nanoparticles with a size of 161 nm, a polydispersity index of 0.2, and an entrapment efficiency of 97%. The optimized formula showed a zeta potential of +38 mV, with well-developed spherical particles. AI successfully showed high prediction ability of the drug's release rate. The optimized formula showed an enhancement in the cytotoxic effect of silymarin with a decreased IC50 compared to standard silymarin. Lecithin/chitosan nanoparticles were successfully formulated, with deep process and product understanding. Several tools were used as AI which could shift pharmaceutical formulations from experience-dependent studies to data-driven methodologies in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marwa H S Dawoud
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmacy, October University for Modern Sciences and Arts, intersection of 26th of July road and Elwahat road, 6th of October city, Giza, Egypt.
| | - Islam S Mannaa
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmacy, October University for Modern Sciences and Arts, intersection of 26th of July road and Elwahat road, 6th of October city, Giza, Egypt
| | - Amira Abdel-Daim
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, October University for Modern Sciences and Arts, Giza, Egypt
| | - Nabila M Sweed
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmacy, October University for Modern Sciences and Arts, intersection of 26th of July road and Elwahat road, 6th of October city, Giza, Egypt
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Chemotherapy Resistance: Role of Mitochondrial and Autophagic Components. Cancers (Basel) 2022; 14:cancers14061462. [PMID: 35326612 PMCID: PMC8945922 DOI: 10.3390/cancers14061462] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2022] [Revised: 03/10/2022] [Accepted: 03/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Chemotherapy resistance is a common occurrence during cancer treatment that cancer researchers are attempting to understand and overcome. Mitochondria are a crucial intracellular signaling core that are becoming important determinants of numerous aspects of cancer genesis and progression, such as metabolic reprogramming, metastatic capability, and chemotherapeutic resistance. Mitophagy, or selective autophagy of mitochondria, can influence both the efficacy of tumor chemotherapy and the degree of drug resistance. Regardless of the fact that mitochondria are well-known for coordinating ATP synthesis from cellular respiration in cellular bioenergetics, little is known its mitophagy regulation in chemoresistance. Recent advancements in mitochondrial research, mitophagy regulatory mechanisms, and their implications for our understanding of chemotherapy resistance are discussed in this review. Abstract Cancer chemotherapy resistance is one of the most critical obstacles in cancer therapy. One of the well-known mechanisms of chemotherapy resistance is the change in the mitochondrial death pathways which occur when cells are under stressful situations, such as chemotherapy. Mitophagy, or mitochondrial selective autophagy, is critical for cell quality control because it can efficiently break down, remove, and recycle defective or damaged mitochondria. As cancer cells use mitophagy to rapidly sweep away damaged mitochondria in order to mediate their own drug resistance, it influences the efficacy of tumor chemotherapy as well as the degree of drug resistance. Yet despite the importance of mitochondria and mitophagy in chemotherapy resistance, little is known about the precise mechanisms involved. As a consequence, identifying potential therapeutic targets by analyzing the signal pathways that govern mitophagy has become a vital research goal. In this paper, we review recent advances in mitochondrial research, mitophagy control mechanisms, and their implications for our understanding of chemotherapy resistance.
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Koltai T, Fliegel L. Role of Silymarin in Cancer Treatment: Facts, Hypotheses, and Questions. J Evid Based Integr Med 2022; 27:2515690X211068826. [PMID: 35018864 PMCID: PMC8814827 DOI: 10.1177/2515690x211068826] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2021] [Revised: 10/20/2021] [Accepted: 12/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The flavonoid silymarin extracted from the seeds of Sylibum marianum is a mixture of 6 flavolignan isomers. The 3 more important isomers are silybin (or silibinin), silydianin, and silychristin. Silybin is functionally the most active of these compounds. This group of flavonoids has been extensively studied and they have been used as hepato-protective substances for the mushroom Amanita phalloides intoxication and mainly chronic liver diseases such as alcoholic cirrhosis and nonalcoholic fatty liver. Hepatitis C progression is not, or slightly, modified by silymarin. Recently, it has also been proposed for SARS COVID-19 infection therapy. The biochemical and molecular mechanisms of action of these substances in cancer are subjects of ongoing research. Paradoxically, many of its identified actions such as antioxidant, promoter of ribosomal synthesis, and mitochondrial membrane stabilization, may seem protumoral at first sight, however, silymarin compounds have clear anticancer effects. Some of them are: decreasing migration through multiple targeting, decreasing hypoxia inducible factor-1α expression, inducing apoptosis in some malignant cells, and inhibiting promitotic signaling among others. Interestingly, the antitumoral activity of silymarin compounds is limited to malignant cells while the nonmalignant cells seem not to be affected. Furthermore, there is a long history of silymarin use in human diseases without toxicity after prolonged administration. The ample distribution and easy accessibility to milk thistle-the source of silymarin compounds, its over the counter availability, the fact that it is a weed, some controversial issues regarding bioavailability, and being a nutraceutical rather than a drug, has somehow led medical professionals to view its anticancer effects with skepticism. This is a fundamental reason why it never achieved bedside status in cancer treatment. However, in spite of all the antitumoral effects, silymarin actually has dual effects and in some cases such as pancreatic cancer it can promote stemness. This review deals with recent investigations to elucidate the molecular actions of this flavonoid in cancer, and to consider the possibility of repurposing it. Particular attention is dedicated to silymarin's dual role in cancer and to some controversies of its real effectiveness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomas Koltai
- Hospital del Centro Gallego de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina
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Garcia-Oliveira P, Otero P, Pereira AG, Chamorro F, Carpena M, Echave J, Fraga-Corral M, Simal-Gandara J, Prieto MA. Status and Challenges of Plant-Anticancer Compounds in Cancer Treatment. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2021; 14:ph14020157. [PMID: 33673021 PMCID: PMC7918405 DOI: 10.3390/ph14020157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2020] [Revised: 02/03/2021] [Accepted: 02/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Nowadays, cancer is one of the deadliest diseases in the world, which has been estimated to cause 9.9 million deaths in 2020. Conventional treatments for cancer commonly involve mono-chemotherapy or a combination of radiotherapy and mono-chemotherapy. However, the negative side effects of these approaches have been extensively reported and have prompted the search of new therapeutic drugs. In this context, scientific community started to look for innovative sources of anticancer compounds in natural sources, including traditional plants. Currently, numerous studies have evaluated the anticancer properties of natural compounds derived from plants, both in vitro and in vivo. In pre-clinical stages, some promising compounds could be mentioned, such as the sulforaphane or different phenolic compounds. On the other hand, some phytochemicals obtained positive results in clinical stages and were further approved for cancer treatment, such as vinca alkaloids or the paclitaxel. Nevertheless, these compounds are not exempt of limitations, such as low solubility, restricted effect on their own, negative side-effects, etc. This review aims to compile the information about the current phytochemicals used for cancer treatment and also promising candidates, main action mechanisms and also reported limitations. In this sense, some strategies to face the limitations have been considered, such as nano-based formulations to improve solubility or chemical modification to reduce toxicity. In conclusion, although more research is still necessary to develop more efficient and safe phytochemical drugs, more of these compounds might be used in future cancer therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paula Garcia-Oliveira
- Nutrition and Bromatology Group, Analytical and Food Chemistry Department, Faculty of Food Science and Technology, University of Vigo, Ourense Campus, E-32004 Ourense, Spain; (P.G.-O.); (P.O.); (A.G.P.); (F.C.); (M.C.); (J.E.); (M.F.-C.)
- Centro de Investigação de Montanha (CIMO), Campus de Santa Apolonia, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, 5300-253 Bragança, Portugal
| | - Paz Otero
- Nutrition and Bromatology Group, Analytical and Food Chemistry Department, Faculty of Food Science and Technology, University of Vigo, Ourense Campus, E-32004 Ourense, Spain; (P.G.-O.); (P.O.); (A.G.P.); (F.C.); (M.C.); (J.E.); (M.F.-C.)
| | - Antia Gonzalez Pereira
- Nutrition and Bromatology Group, Analytical and Food Chemistry Department, Faculty of Food Science and Technology, University of Vigo, Ourense Campus, E-32004 Ourense, Spain; (P.G.-O.); (P.O.); (A.G.P.); (F.C.); (M.C.); (J.E.); (M.F.-C.)
- Centro de Investigação de Montanha (CIMO), Campus de Santa Apolonia, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, 5300-253 Bragança, Portugal
| | - Franklin Chamorro
- Nutrition and Bromatology Group, Analytical and Food Chemistry Department, Faculty of Food Science and Technology, University of Vigo, Ourense Campus, E-32004 Ourense, Spain; (P.G.-O.); (P.O.); (A.G.P.); (F.C.); (M.C.); (J.E.); (M.F.-C.)
| | - Maria Carpena
- Nutrition and Bromatology Group, Analytical and Food Chemistry Department, Faculty of Food Science and Technology, University of Vigo, Ourense Campus, E-32004 Ourense, Spain; (P.G.-O.); (P.O.); (A.G.P.); (F.C.); (M.C.); (J.E.); (M.F.-C.)
| | - Javier Echave
- Nutrition and Bromatology Group, Analytical and Food Chemistry Department, Faculty of Food Science and Technology, University of Vigo, Ourense Campus, E-32004 Ourense, Spain; (P.G.-O.); (P.O.); (A.G.P.); (F.C.); (M.C.); (J.E.); (M.F.-C.)
| | - Maria Fraga-Corral
- Nutrition and Bromatology Group, Analytical and Food Chemistry Department, Faculty of Food Science and Technology, University of Vigo, Ourense Campus, E-32004 Ourense, Spain; (P.G.-O.); (P.O.); (A.G.P.); (F.C.); (M.C.); (J.E.); (M.F.-C.)
- Centro de Investigação de Montanha (CIMO), Campus de Santa Apolonia, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, 5300-253 Bragança, Portugal
| | - Jesus Simal-Gandara
- Nutrition and Bromatology Group, Analytical and Food Chemistry Department, Faculty of Food Science and Technology, University of Vigo, Ourense Campus, E-32004 Ourense, Spain; (P.G.-O.); (P.O.); (A.G.P.); (F.C.); (M.C.); (J.E.); (M.F.-C.)
- Correspondence: (J.S.-G.); (M.A.P.)
| | - Miguel Angel Prieto
- Nutrition and Bromatology Group, Analytical and Food Chemistry Department, Faculty of Food Science and Technology, University of Vigo, Ourense Campus, E-32004 Ourense, Spain; (P.G.-O.); (P.O.); (A.G.P.); (F.C.); (M.C.); (J.E.); (M.F.-C.)
- Correspondence: (J.S.-G.); (M.A.P.)
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Marmouzi I, Bouyahya A, Ezzat SM, El Jemli M, Kharbach M. The food plant Silybum marianum (L.) Gaertn.: Phytochemistry, Ethnopharmacology and clinical evidence. JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY 2021; 265:113303. [PMID: 32877720 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2020.113303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2020] [Revised: 08/03/2020] [Accepted: 08/21/2020] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE Silybum marianum (L.) Gaertn. or Milk thistle is a medicinal plant native to Northern Africa, Southern Europe, Southern Russia and Anatolia. It also grows in South Australia, North and South America. In traditional knowledge, people have used S. marianum for liver disorders such as hepatitis, liver cirrhosis and gallbladder diseases. The main active compound of the plant seeds is silymarin, which is the most commonly used herbal supplement in the United States for liver problems. Nowadays, S. marianum products are available as capsules, powders, and extracts. AIM OF STUDY The aim of our study is to draw a more comprehensive overview of the traditional heritage, pharmacological benefits and chemical fingerprint of S. marianum extracts and metabolites; as well as their metabolism and bioavailability. MATERIALS AND METHODS An extensive literature search has been conducted using relavant keywords and papers with rationale methodology and robust data were selected and discussed. Studies involving S. marianum or its main active ingredients with regards to hepatoprotective, antidiabetic, cardiovascular protection, anticancer and antimicrobial activities as well as the clinical trials performed on the plant, were discussed here. RESULTS S. marianum was subjected to thousands of ethnopharmacological, experimental and clinical investigations. Although, the plant is available for use as a dietary supplement, the FDA did not yet approve its use for cancer therapy. Nowadays, clinical investigations are in progress where a global evidence of its real efficiency is needed. CONCLUSION S. marianum is a worldwide used herb with unlimited number of investigations focusing on its benefits and properties, however, little is known about its clinical efficiency. Moreover, few studies have discussed its metabolism, pharmacokinetics and bioavailability, so that all future studies on S. marianum should focus on such areas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ilias Marmouzi
- Laboratory of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy, University Mohammed V in Rabat, Rabat, Morocco
| | - Abdelhakim Bouyahya
- Laboratory of Human Pathology Biology, Faculty of Sciences, Department of Biology, Genomic Center of Human Pathology, Mohammed V University in Rabat, Morocco
| | - Shahira M Ezzat
- Pharmacognosy Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, Cairo University, Kasr El-Ainy Street, Cairo, 11562, Egypt; Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, October University for Modern Science and Arts (MSA), Giza, 12451, Egypt.
| | - Meryem El Jemli
- Laboratory of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy, University Mohammed V in Rabat, Rabat, Morocco
| | - Mourad Kharbach
- Laboratory of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy, University Mohammed V in Rabat, Rabat, Morocco; Department of Analytical Chemistry, Applied Chemometrics and Molecular Modelling, CePhaR, Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), Laarbeeklaan 103, B-1090, Brussels, Belgium
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Xie P, Wang Y, Wei D, Zhang L, Zhang B, Xiao H, Song H, Mao X. Nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems with platinum drugs for overcoming cancer drug resistance. J Mater Chem B 2021; 9:5173-5194. [PMID: 34116565 DOI: 10.1039/d1tb00753j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Platinum drugs are commonly used in cancer therapy, but their therapeutic outcomes have been significantly compromised by the drug resistance of cancer cells. To this end, intensive efforts have been made to develop nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems for platinum drugs, due to their multifunctionality in delivering drugs, in modulating the tumor microenvironment, and in integrating additional genes, proteins, and small molecules to overcome chemoresistance in cancers. To facilitate the clinical application of these promising nanoparticle-based platinum drug delivery systems, this paper summarizes the common mechanisms for chemoresistance towards platinum drugs, the advantages of nanoparticles in drug delivery, and recent strategies of nanoparticle-based platinum drug delivery. Furthermore, we discuss how to design delivery platforms more effectively to overcome chemoresistance in cancers, thereby improving the efficacy of platinum-based chemotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peng Xie
- Department of Orthopedics, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan 410011, China. and Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences, State Key Laboratory of Polymer Physics and Chemistry, Institute of Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China.
| | - Yushu Wang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Tufts University, Medford, MA 02155, USA
| | - Dengshuai Wei
- Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences, State Key Laboratory of Polymer Physics and Chemistry, Institute of Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China.
| | - Lingpu Zhang
- Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences, State Key Laboratory of Polymer Physics and Chemistry, Institute of Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China.
| | - Bin Zhang
- XJTU-Oxford International Joint Laboratory for Catalysis, School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710049, China
| | - Haihua Xiao
- Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences, State Key Laboratory of Polymer Physics and Chemistry, Institute of Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China.
| | - Haiqin Song
- Department of General Surgery, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, School of Medicine, Shanghai 200025, China.
| | - Xinzhan Mao
- Department of Orthopedics, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan 410011, China.
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Ferenczi RK, Illyés TZ, Király SB, Hoffka G, Szilágyi L, Mándi A, Antus S, Kurtán T. Evaluation of Different Synthetic Routes to (2R,3R)-3-Hydroxymethyl-2-(4-hydroxy- 3-methoxyphenyl)-1,4-Benzodioxane-6-Carbaldehyde. CURR ORG CHEM 2020. [DOI: 10.2174/1385272823666191212113407] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The reported enantioselective synthesis for the preparation of (+)-(2R,3R)-2-(4-
hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)-3-hydroxymethyl-1,4-benzodioxane-6-carbaldehyde, precursor
for the stereoselective synthesis of bioactive flavanolignans, could not be reproduced.
Thus, the target molecule was prepared via the synthesis and separation of diastereomeric
O-glucosides. TDDFT-ECD calculations and the 1,4-benzodioxane helicity rule were utilized
to determine the absolute configuration. ECD calculations also confirmed that the 1Lb
Cotton effect is governed by the helicity of the heteroring, while the higher-energy ECD
transitions reflect mainly the orientation of the equatorial C-2 aryl group.
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Affiliation(s)
- Renáta Kertiné Ferenczi
- Department of Organic Chemistry, University of Debrecen, P.O. Box 400, H-4002 Debrecen, Hungary
| | - Tünde-Zita Illyés
- Department of Organic Chemistry, University of Debrecen, P.O. Box 400, H-4002 Debrecen, Hungary
| | - Sándor Balázs Király
- Department of Organic Chemistry, University of Debrecen, P.O. Box 400, H-4002 Debrecen, Hungary
| | - Gyula Hoffka
- Department of Organic Chemistry, University of Debrecen, P.O. Box 400, H-4002 Debrecen, Hungary
| | - László Szilágyi
- Department of Organic Chemistry, University of Debrecen, P.O. Box 400, H-4002 Debrecen, Hungary
| | - Attila Mándi
- Department of Organic Chemistry, University of Debrecen, P.O. Box 400, H-4002 Debrecen, Hungary
| | - Sándor Antus
- Department of Organic Chemistry, University of Debrecen, P.O. Box 400, H-4002 Debrecen, Hungary
| | - Tibor Kurtán
- Department of Organic Chemistry, University of Debrecen, P.O. Box 400, H-4002 Debrecen, Hungary
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O’Brien K, Moore A, Percival-Smith S, Venkatraman S, Grubacevic V, Scoble J, Gilham L, Greenway T, Coghill K, Wale J. An investigation into the usability of a drug-complementary medicines interactions database in a consumer group of women with breast cancer. Eur J Integr Med 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.eujim.2019.101004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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Hosseinabadi T, Lorigooini Z, Tabarzad M, Salehi B, Rodrigues CF, Martins N, Sharifi-Rad J. Silymarin antiproliferative and apoptotic effects: Insights into its clinical impact in various types of cancer. Phytother Res 2019; 33:2849-2861. [PMID: 31407422 DOI: 10.1002/ptr.6470] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2019] [Revised: 06/07/2019] [Accepted: 07/13/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Silymarin is a complex extract isolated from the plant Silybum marianum, widely known for its prominent antioxidant and hepatoprotective effects, although increasing evidences have reported extraordinary antiproliferative and apoptotic abilities. As a result, several signaling pathways involved in cell cycle control, cell proliferation, and cell death have been deconvoluted as critical mechanisms. In this regard, cyclin and cyclin-dependent pathways have been the most studied ones. Following that, apoptotic pathways, such as p53, Akt, STAT-3, Ras, and caspases pathways, have been extensively studied, although other mechanisms involved in inflammation and angiogenesis have also been highlighted as silymarin-likely targets in cancer therapy. Therefore, the main challenge of this review is to discuss the diverse molecular mechanisms for silymarin antiproliferative and apoptotic effects; most of them largely studied in various types of cancers so far. Clinical trials and combination therapies related to silymarin application in cancer prevention and treatment are presented as well.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tahereh Hosseinabadi
- Department of Pharmacognosy and Biotechnology, School of Pharmacy, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Zahra Lorigooini
- Medical Plants Research Center, Basic Health Sciences Institute, Shahrekord University of Medical Sciences, Shahrekord, Iran
| | - Maryam Tabarzad
- Protein Technology Research Center, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Bahare Salehi
- Student Research Committee, School of Medicine, Bam University of Medical Sciences, Bam, Iran
| | - Célia F Rodrigues
- LEPABE-Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Natália Martins
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
- Institute for Research and Innovation in Health (i3S), University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Javad Sharifi-Rad
- Zabol Medicinal Plants Research Center, Zabol University of Medical Sciences, Zabol, Iran
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Yang Z, Pan Q, Zhang D, Chen J, Qiu Y, Chen X, Zheng F, Lin F. Silibinin restores the sensitivity of cisplatin and taxol in A2780-resistant cell and reduces drug-induced hepatotoxicity. Cancer Manag Res 2019; 11:7111-7122. [PMID: 31440098 PMCID: PMC6668021 DOI: 10.2147/cmar.s201341] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2019] [Accepted: 06/06/2019] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE Ovarian cancer is the most lethal cancer among all gynaecological malignancies. The combination theraputics of cisplatin and taxol is widely used in clinicals for ovarian cancer treatment. However, long-term use of cisplatin and taxol induces strong tolerance and hepatotoxicity. Since silibinin is a commonly used anti-hepatotoxic drug in Europe and Asia, the aim of this study was to determine whether silibinin could restore the sensitivity of combination use of cisplatin and taxol in drug-resistant human ovarian cancer cells and reduce drug-induced hepatotoxicity. PATIENTS AND METHODS Normal hepatocyte LO2 cells and A2780/DDP cells were treated with silibinin, cisplatin, taxol, cisplatin and taxol plus silibinin for 48 h. Cell viability was determined by MTT and long-term proliferation assay, while apoptosis and cell cycle progression were assessed by flow cytometric analysis. DNA damage was evluated by immunofluorescence assays. The metastatic activity of A2780/DDP was determined by cell adhesion assay. RESULTS The addition of silibinin on cisplatin and/or toxal could sensitize the antitumor activity of cisplatin and toxal on A2780/DDP cells, supress cell-matrix adhesion of A2780/DDP, inhibit the cell proliferation, result in A2780/DDP cells apoptosis. In addition, silibinin could effectively reduce cisplatin and/or toxal-induced hepatotoxicity by protecting DNA from damage and restoring the potential of cell proliferation in cisplatin and/or toxal-treated LO2 cells. CONCLUSION Our results suggest that silibinin could restore the sensitivity of cisplatin and taxol in drug-resistant human ovarian cancer cells and reduce durg-induced hepatotoxicity in cell level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhichun Yang
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang325000, People’s Republic of China
| | - Qionghui Pan
- Department of Gynecology, Wenzhou People’s Hospital, Wenzhou325027, Zhejiang, People’s Republic of China
| | - Dingfang Zhang
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou325035, Zhejiang, People’s Republic of China
| | - Jianqiang Chen
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou325035, Zhejiang, People’s Republic of China
| | - Yinda Qiu
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou325035, Zhejiang, People’s Republic of China
| | - Xiaojing Chen
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou325035, Zhejiang, People’s Republic of China
| | - Feiyun Zheng
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang325000, People’s Republic of China
| | - Feng Lin
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang325000, People’s Republic of China
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11
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Ham J, Kim J, Bazer FW, Lim W, Song G. Silibinin‐induced endoplasmic reticulum stress and mitochondrial dysfunction suppress growth of endometriotic lesions. J Cell Physiol 2018; 234:4327-4341. [DOI: 10.1002/jcp.27212] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2018] [Accepted: 07/17/2018] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jiyeon Ham
- Department of Biotechnology Institute of Animal Molecular Biotechnology Korea University Seoul Republic of Korea
| | - Jonggun Kim
- Department of Biotechnology Institute of Animal Molecular Biotechnology Korea University Seoul Republic of Korea
| | - Fuller W. Bazer
- Department of Animal Science Center for Animal Biotechnology and Genomics, Texas A&M University College Station Texas
| | - Whasun Lim
- Department of Biomedical Sciences Catholic Kwandong University Gangneung Republic of Korea
| | - Gwonhwa Song
- Department of Biotechnology Institute of Animal Molecular Biotechnology Korea University Seoul Republic of Korea
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12
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Rodriguez JP, Quilantang NG, Lee JS, Lee JM, Kim HY, Shim JS, Lee S. Determination of Silybin B in the Different Parts of Silybum marianum using HPLC-UV. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2018. [DOI: 10.20307/nps.2018.24.2.82] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Joyce P. Rodriguez
- Department of Integrative Plant Science, Chung-Ang University, Anseong 17546, Korea
| | - Norman G. Quilantang
- Department of Integrative Plant Science, Chung-Ang University, Anseong 17546, Korea
| | - Ju Sung Lee
- Department of Integrative Plant Science, Chung-Ang University, Anseong 17546, Korea
| | - Jeong Min Lee
- Natural Products Research Team, National Marine Biodiversity Institute of Korea, Seocheon 33662, Korea
| | - Hyun Young Kim
- Department of Food Science, Gyeongnam National University of Science and Technology, Jinju 52725, Korea
| | - Jae Suk Shim
- Imsil Herbal Medicine Association, Imsil 55955, Korea
| | - Sanghyun Lee
- Department of Integrative Plant Science, Chung-Ang University, Anseong 17546, Korea
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Bosch-Barrera J, Queralt B, Menendez JA. Targeting STAT3 with silibinin to improve cancer therapeutics. Cancer Treat Rev 2017; 58:61-69. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ctrv.2017.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2017] [Accepted: 06/15/2017] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
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Yang T, Wu Z, Wang P, Mu T, Qin H, Zhu Z, Wang J, Sui L. A large-inner-diameter multi-walled carbon nanotube-based dual-drug delivery system with pH-sensitive release properties. JOURNAL OF MATERIALS SCIENCE. MATERIALS IN MEDICINE 2017; 28:110. [PMID: 28589526 DOI: 10.1007/s10856-017-5920-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2016] [Accepted: 05/16/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
A novel dual-drug delivery system (DDDS) for cancer chemotherapy has been established by employing highly purified and mildly oxidized large-inner-diameter multi-walled carbon nanotubes (LID-MWCNTs) as the vector. The LID-MWCNTs were modified with the antitumor drugs, cisplatin (CDDP) and doxorubicin (DOX). CDDP was encapsulated inside the nanotube vectors by a wet-chemical approach while DOX was attached to the external surfaces through non-covalently interaction. The loading efficiencies of CDDP and DOX were as high as 84.56 and 192.67%, respectively. Notably, after CDDP was encapsulated inside the nanotubes, a three-level blocking strategy, which included polyethylene glycol, folic acid and DOX, was employed to block the CDDP exits at different levels. The pH-sensitive release profile of CDDP was demonstrated using a modified characterization method, as well as that of DOX. Finally, the anticancer activity of the DDDS on MCF-7 cells was tested and a synergistic effect was recorded. This work is part of our LID-MWCNTs based drug delivery system studies, and provides a basis for developing a novel comprehensive antitumor treatment that combines chemotherapy and photothermal therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tao Yang
- Department of Prosthodontics, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, China No.14, 3rd Section of Ren Min Nan Rd., Chengdu, Sichuan, 610041, China
| | - Zhenzhen Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China No.14, 3rd Section of Ren Min Nan Rd., Chengdu, Sichuan, 610041, China
| | - Pingting Wang
- School of Stomatology, Tianjin Medical University, China No.12, Qixiangtai Rd. Heping District, Tianjin, 300070, China
| | - Tingting Mu
- School of Stomatology, Tianjin Medical University, China No.12, Qixiangtai Rd. Heping District, Tianjin, 300070, China
| | - Han Qin
- Department of Prosthodontics, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, China No.14, 3rd Section of Ren Min Nan Rd., Chengdu, Sichuan, 610041, China
| | - Zhimin Zhu
- Department of Prosthodontics, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, China No.14, 3rd Section of Ren Min Nan Rd., Chengdu, Sichuan, 610041, China
| | - Jian Wang
- Department of Prosthodontics, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, China No.14, 3rd Section of Ren Min Nan Rd., Chengdu, Sichuan, 610041, China
| | - Lei Sui
- School of Stomatology, Tianjin Medical University, China No.12, Qixiangtai Rd. Heping District, Tianjin, 300070, China.
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Silymarin and its active component silibinin act as novel therapeutic alternatives for salivary gland cancer by targeting the ERK1/2-Bim signaling cascade. Cell Oncol (Dordr) 2017; 40:235-246. [PMID: 28401485 DOI: 10.1007/s13402-017-0318-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/14/2017] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE Approximately 20% of all salivary gland cancer patients who are treated with current treatment modalities will ultimately develop metastases. Its most common form, mucoepidermoid carcinoma (MEC) is a highly aggressive tumor with an overall 5-year survival rate of ~30%. Until now, several chemotherapeutic drugs have been tested for the treatment of salivary gland tumors, but the results have been disappointing and the drugs often cause unwanted side effects. Therefore, several recent studies have focused on the potential of alternative and/or complementary therapeutic options, including the use of silymarin. METHODS The effects of silymarin and its active component silibinin on salivary gland cancer-derived MC3 and HN22 cells and their underlying molecular mechanisms were examined using trypan blue exclusion, 4'-6-diamidino-2-phenylindole (DAPI) staining, Live/Dead, Annexin V/PI staining, mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨm) measurement, quantitative RT-PCR, soft agar colony formation and Western blotting analyses. RESULTS We found that silymarin and silibinin dramatically increased the expression of the pro-apoptotic protein Bim in a concentration- and time-dependent manner and, concomitantly, induced apoptosis in MC3 and HN22 cells. We also found that ERK1/2 signaling inhibition successfully sensitized these cells to the apoptotic effects of silymarin and silibinin, which indicates that the ERK1/2 signaling pathway may act as an upstream regulator that modulates the silymarin/silibinin-induced Bim signaling pathway. CONCLUSIONS Taken together, we conclude that ERK1/2 signaling pathway inhibition by silymarin and silibinin increases the expression of the pro-apoptotic Bcl-2 family member Bim which, subsequently, induces mitochondria-mediated apoptosis in salivary gland cancer-derived cells.
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Cheng C, Zhang X, Meng Y, Chen L, Zhang Q. Development of a dual drug-loaded hydrogel delivery system for enhanced cancer therapy: in situ formation, degradation and synergistic antitumor efficiency. J Mater Chem B 2017; 5:8487-8497. [DOI: 10.1039/c7tb02173a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
A stimuli-responsive, biodegradable, and dual drug-loaded hydrogel delivery system was formed in situ for combination drug therapy of cancer in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cui Cheng
- Institute of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Technology
- Fuzhou University
- Fuzhou
- P. R. China
| | - Xiuli Zhang
- Institute of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Technology
- Fuzhou University
- Fuzhou
- P. R. China
| | - Yabin Meng
- Institute of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Technology
- Fuzhou University
- Fuzhou
- P. R. China
| | - Li Chen
- Institute of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Technology
- Fuzhou University
- Fuzhou
- P. R. China
| | - Qiqing Zhang
- Institute of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Technology
- Fuzhou University
- Fuzhou
- P. R. China
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17
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Csupor D, Csorba A, Hohmann J. Recent advances in the analysis of flavonolignans of Silybum marianum. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2016; 130:301-317. [PMID: 27321822 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2016.05.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2016] [Revised: 05/18/2016] [Accepted: 05/20/2016] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Extracts of milk thistle (Silybum marianum, Asteraceae) have been recognized for centuries as remedies for liver and gallbladder disorders. The active constituents of milk thistle fruits are flavonolignans, collectively known as silymarin. Flavonolignans in S. marianum are structurally diverse, 23 constituents have been isolated from purple- and white-flowering variants. Flavonolignans have a broad spectrum of bioactivities and silymarin has been the subject of intensive research for its profound pharmacological activities. Silymarin is extracted from the seeds, commercialized in standardized form, and widely used in drugs and dietary supplements. The thorough analysis of silymarin, its constituents and silymarin-containing products has a key role in the quality control of milk thistle-based products. Due to the low concentration of analytes, especially pharmacological and pharmacokinetic studies require more and more selective and sensitive, advanced techniques. The objective of the present review is to summarize the recent advances in the chemical analysis of S. marianum extracts, including the chemical composition, isolation and identification of flavonolignans, sample preparation, and methods used for qualitative and quantitative analysis. Various analytical approaches have been surveyed, and their respective advantages and limits are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dezső Csupor
- Department of Pharmacognosy, University of Szeged, Eötvös u. 6., H-6720 Szeged, Hungary; Interdisciplinary Centre of Natural Compounds, University of Szeged, Eötvös u. 6., H-6720 Szeged, Hungary
| | - Attila Csorba
- Department of Pharmacognosy, University of Szeged, Eötvös u. 6., H-6720 Szeged, Hungary; Interdisciplinary Centre of Natural Compounds, University of Szeged, Eötvös u. 6., H-6720 Szeged, Hungary
| | - Judit Hohmann
- Department of Pharmacognosy, University of Szeged, Eötvös u. 6., H-6720 Szeged, Hungary; Interdisciplinary Centre of Natural Compounds, University of Szeged, Eötvös u. 6., H-6720 Szeged, Hungary.
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Abstract
Prevention and therapeutic intervention by phytochemicals are newer dimensions in the arena of cancer management. In this regard, the cancer chemopreventive role of silymarin (Silybum marianum) has been extensively studied and has shown anticancer efficacy against various cancer sites, especially skin and prostate. In skin cancer, silymarin treatment inhibits ultraviolet B radiation or chemically initiated or promoted carcinogenesis. These effects of silymarin against skin carcinogenesis have been attributed to its strong antioxidant and anti-inflammatory action as well as its inhibitory effect on mitogenic signaling. Similarly, silymarin treatment inhibits 3, 2-dimethyl-4-aminobiphenyl—induced prostate carcinogenesis and retards the growth of advanced prostate tumor xenograft in athymic nude mice. In prostate cancer, silymarin treatment down-regulates androgen receptor—, epidermal growth factor receptor—, and nuclear factor-κB— mediated signaling and induces cell cycle arrest. Extensive preclinical findings have supported the anticancer potential of silymarin, and now its efficacy is being evaluated in cancer patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gagan Deep
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Colorado Health Sciences Center, CO 80262, USA
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19
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Comelli MC, Mengs U, Schneider C, Prosdocimi M. Toward the Definition of the Mechanism of Action of Silymarin: Activities Related to Cellular Protection From Toxic Damage Induced by Chemotherapy. Integr Cancer Ther 2016; 6:120-9. [PMID: 17548791 DOI: 10.1177/1534735407302349] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Silymarin, the active extract from milk thistle, has been extensively used in patients with liver disease of different etiology. Although silymarin is a complex of 7 flavonolignans and polyphenols, silibinin is usually regarded as the most active component. In vitro and in vivo studies indicate that silymarin and silibinin protect the liver from oxidative stress and sustained inflammatory processes, mainly driven by Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) and secondary cytokines. Oxidative stress and inflammation are also involved in cellular damage of many other tissues and their role in the development and toxic reactions in patients receiving cancer therapies is established. The protective effects of silymarin and silibinin, demonstrated in various tissues, suggest a clinical application in cancer patients as an adjunct to established therapies, to prevent or reduce their toxicity. Here we discuss the possible mechanism of the protective action of silymarin and silibinin, focusing on cancer therapies as agents causing cellular damage.
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Dixon SW. Integrative Tumor Board: Colon Cancer with Liver Metastases. Integr Cancer Ther 2016. [DOI: 10.1177/1534735403002002016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Suzanne Work Dixon
- Oncology Nutrition Specialist & Epidemiologist Cancer Nutrition Info, LLC 926 Argonne Avenue NE Atlanta, GA 30309 Tel: 404-876-3084 Fax: 404-872-3851
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21
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Singh D, Cho WC, Upadhyay G. Drug-Induced Liver Toxicity and Prevention by Herbal Antioxidants: An Overview. Front Physiol 2016; 6:363. [PMID: 26858648 PMCID: PMC4726750 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2015.00363] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2015] [Accepted: 11/16/2015] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The liver is the center for drug and xenobiotic metabolism, which is influenced most with medication/xenobiotic-mediated toxic activity. Drug-induced hepatotoxicity is common and its actual frequency is hard to determine due to underreporting, difficulties in detection or diagnosis, and incomplete observation of exposure. The death rate is high, up to about 10% for drug-induced liver damage. Endorsed medications represented >50% of instances of intense liver failure in a study from the Acute Liver Failure Study Group of the patients admitted in 17 US healing facilities. Albeit different studies are accessible uncovering the mechanistic aspects of medication prompted hepatotoxicity, we are in the dilemma about the virtual story. The expanding prevalence and effectiveness of Ayurveda and natural products in the treatment of various disorders led the investigators to look into their potential in countering drug-induced liver toxicity. Several natural products have been reported to date to mitigate the drug-induced toxicity. The dietary nature and less adverse reactions of the natural products provide them an extra edge over other candidates of supplementary medication. In this paper, we have discussed the mechanism involved in drug-induced liver toxicity and the potential of herbal antioxidants as supplementary medication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Divya Singh
- Department of Biology, City College of New York New York, NY, USA
| | - William C Cho
- Department of Clinical Oncology, Queen Elizabeth Hospital Kowloon, Hong Kong
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22
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Gufford BT, Chen G, Vergara AG, Lazarus P, Oberlies NH, Paine MF. Milk Thistle Constituents Inhibit Raloxifene Intestinal Glucuronidation: A Potential Clinically Relevant Natural Product-Drug Interaction. Drug Metab Dispos 2015; 43:1353-9. [PMID: 26070840 PMCID: PMC4538855 DOI: 10.1124/dmd.115.065086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2015] [Accepted: 06/12/2015] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Women at high risk of developing breast cancer are prescribed selective estrogen response modulators, including raloxifene, as chemoprevention. Patients often seek complementary and alternative treatment modalities, including herbal products, to supplement prescribed medications. Milk thistle preparations, including silibinin and silymarin, are top-selling herbal products that may be consumed by women taking raloxifene, which undergoes extensive first-pass glucuronidation in the intestine. Key constituents in milk thistle, flavonolignans, were previously shown to be potent inhibitors of intestinal UDP-glucuronosyl transferases (UGTs), with IC50s ≤ 10 μM. Taken together, milk thistle preparations may perpetrate unwanted interactions with raloxifene. The objective of this work was to evaluate the inhibitory effects of individual milk thistle constituents on the intestinal glucuronidation of raloxifene using human intestinal microsomes and human embryonic kidney cell lysates overexpressing UGT1A1, UGT1A8, and UGT1A10, isoforms highly expressed in the intestine that are critical to raloxifene clearance. The flavonolignans silybin A and silybin B were potent inhibitors of both raloxifene 4'- and 6-glucuronidation in all enzyme systems. The Kis (human intestinal microsomes, 27-66 µM; UGT1A1, 3.2-8.3 µM; UGT1A8, 19-73 µM; and UGT1A10, 65-120 µM) encompassed reported intestinal tissue concentrations (20-310 µM), prompting prediction of clinical interaction risk using a mechanistic static model. Silibinin and silymarin were predicted to increase raloxifene systemic exposure by 4- to 5-fold, indicating high interaction risk that merits further evaluation. This systematic investigation of the potential interaction between a widely used herbal product and chemopreventive agent underscores the importance of understanding natural product-drug interactions in the context of cancer prevention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brandon T Gufford
- Experimental and Systems Pharmacology (B.T.G., M.F.P.) and Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences (G.C., A.G.V., P.L.), College of Pharmacy, Washington State University, Spokane, Washington; and Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of North Carolina, Greensboro, North Carolina (N.H.O.)
| | - Gang Chen
- Experimental and Systems Pharmacology (B.T.G., M.F.P.) and Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences (G.C., A.G.V., P.L.), College of Pharmacy, Washington State University, Spokane, Washington; and Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of North Carolina, Greensboro, North Carolina (N.H.O.)
| | - Ana G Vergara
- Experimental and Systems Pharmacology (B.T.G., M.F.P.) and Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences (G.C., A.G.V., P.L.), College of Pharmacy, Washington State University, Spokane, Washington; and Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of North Carolina, Greensboro, North Carolina (N.H.O.)
| | - Philip Lazarus
- Experimental and Systems Pharmacology (B.T.G., M.F.P.) and Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences (G.C., A.G.V., P.L.), College of Pharmacy, Washington State University, Spokane, Washington; and Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of North Carolina, Greensboro, North Carolina (N.H.O.)
| | - Nicholas H Oberlies
- Experimental and Systems Pharmacology (B.T.G., M.F.P.) and Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences (G.C., A.G.V., P.L.), College of Pharmacy, Washington State University, Spokane, Washington; and Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of North Carolina, Greensboro, North Carolina (N.H.O.)
| | - Mary F Paine
- Experimental and Systems Pharmacology (B.T.G., M.F.P.) and Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences (G.C., A.G.V., P.L.), College of Pharmacy, Washington State University, Spokane, Washington; and Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of North Carolina, Greensboro, North Carolina (N.H.O.)
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Bahmani M, Shirzad H, Rafieian S, Rafieian-Kopaei M. Silybum marianum: Beyond Hepatoprotection. J Evid Based Complementary Altern Med 2015; 20:292-301. [PMID: 25686616 DOI: 10.1177/2156587215571116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2014] [Accepted: 01/06/2015] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Silybum marianum is a medicinal plant that has long been used as hepatoprotective remedy. It has been used for the treatment of numerous liver disorders characterized by functional impairment or degenerative necrosis. Its hepatoprotective activity is unique and acts in different ways, including antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities, cell permeability regulator and membrane stabilizer, stimulation of liver regeneration and inhibition of deposition in collagen fibers, which may lead to cirrhosis. Most of documented data with Silybum marianum are about liver disorders; however, recently several beneficial properties on a wide variety of other disorders such as renal protection, hypolipidemic and anti-atherosclerosis activities, cardiovascular protection, prevention of insulin resistance, especially in cirrhotic patients, cancer, and Alzheimer prevention. It is also used as a food remedy. This review article aims to present different aspects of Silybum marianum, especially the data in recently published articles about its effects on different diseases, apart from presenting the aspects of its hepatoprotection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mahmood Bahmani
- Food and Beverages Safety Research Center, Urmia University of Medical Sciences, Urmia, Iran
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24
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Hajighasemlou S, Farajollahi M, Alebouyeh M, Rastegar H, Manzari MT, Mirmoghtadaei M, Moayedi B, Ahmadzadeh M, Kazemi M, Parvizpour F, Gharibzadeh S. Study of the Effect of Silymarin on Viability of Breast Cancer Cell Lines. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2014. [DOI: 10.4236/abcr.2014.33015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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25
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Yamamoto Y, Hyodo I, Takigahira M, Koga Y, Yasunaga M, Harada M, Hayashi T, Kato Y, Matsumura Y. Effect of combined treatment with the epirubicin-incorporating micelles (NC-6300) and 1,2-diaminocyclohexane platinum (II)-incorporating micelles (NC-4016) on a human gastric cancer model. Int J Cancer 2013; 135:214-23. [DOI: 10.1002/ijc.28651] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2013] [Revised: 11/05/2013] [Accepted: 11/15/2013] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yoshiyuki Yamamoto
- Division of Developmental Therapeutics; Research Center for Innovative Oncology, National Cancer Center Hospital East; Kashiwa Chiba Japan
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology; Institute of Clinical Medicine, Graduate School of Comprehensive Human Sciences, University of Tsukuba; Tsukuba, Ibaraki Japan
| | - Ichinosuke Hyodo
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology; Institute of Clinical Medicine, Graduate School of Comprehensive Human Sciences, University of Tsukuba; Tsukuba, Ibaraki Japan
| | - Misato Takigahira
- Division of Developmental Therapeutics; Research Center for Innovative Oncology, National Cancer Center Hospital East; Kashiwa Chiba Japan
| | - Yoshikatsu Koga
- Division of Developmental Therapeutics; Research Center for Innovative Oncology, National Cancer Center Hospital East; Kashiwa Chiba Japan
| | - Masahiro Yasunaga
- Division of Developmental Therapeutics; Research Center for Innovative Oncology, National Cancer Center Hospital East; Kashiwa Chiba Japan
| | | | | | - Yasuki Kato
- Research Division; NanoCarrier Co., Ltd; Kashiwa, Chiba Japan
| | - Yasuhiro Matsumura
- Division of Developmental Therapeutics; Research Center for Innovative Oncology, National Cancer Center Hospital East; Kashiwa Chiba Japan
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Agarwal C, Wadhwa R, Deep G, Biedermann D, Gažák R, Křen V, Agarwal R. Anti-cancer efficacy of silybin derivatives -- a structure-activity relationship. PLoS One 2013; 8:e60074. [PMID: 23555889 PMCID: PMC3610875 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0060074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2012] [Accepted: 02/21/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Silybin or silibinin, a flavonolignan isolated from Milk thistle seeds, is one of the popular dietary supplements and has been extensively studied for its antioxidant, hepatoprotective and anti-cancer properties. We have envisioned that potency of silybin could be further enhanced through suitable modification/s in its chemical structure. Accordingly, here, we synthesized and characterized a series of silybin derivatives namely 2,3-dehydrosilybin (DHS), 7-O-methylsilybin (7OM), 7-O-galloylsilybin (7OG), 7,23-disulphatesilybin (DSS), 7-O-palmitoylsilybin (7OP), and 23-O-palmitoylsilybin (23OP); and compared their anti-cancer efficacy using human bladder cancer HTB9, colon cancer HCT116 and prostate carcinoma PC3 cells. In all the 3 cell lines, DHS, 7OM and 7OG demonstrated better growth inhibitory effects and compared to silybin, while other silybin derivatives showed lesser or no efficacy. Next, we prepared the optical isomers (A and B) of silybin, DHS, 7OM and 7OG, and compared their anti-cancer efficacy. Isomers of these three silybin derivatives also showed better efficacy compared with respective silybin isomers, but in each, there was no clear cut silybin A versus B isomer activity preference. Further studies in HTB cells found that DHS, 7OM and 7OG exert better apoptotic activity than silibinin. Clonogenic assays in HTB9 cells further confirmed that both the racemic mixtures as well as pure optical isomers of DHS, 7OM and 7OG were more effective than silybin. Overall, these results clearly suggest that the anti-cancer efficacy of silybin could be significantly enhanced through structural modifications, and identify strong anti-cancer efficacy of silybin derivatives, namely DHS, 7OM, and 7OG, signifying that their efficacy and toxicity should be evaluated in relevant pre-clinical cancer models in rodents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chapla Agarwal
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
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27
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Xiao H, Li W, Qi R, Yan L, Wang R, Liu S, Zheng Y, Xie Z, Huang Y, Jing X. Co-delivery of daunomycin and oxaliplatin by biodegradable polymers for safer and more efficacious combination therapy. J Control Release 2012; 163:304-14. [PMID: 22698937 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2012.06.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2012] [Accepted: 06/03/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
An oxaliplatin pro-drug (Oxa(IV)-COOH) with an axial carboxyl group was synthesized and conjugated to biodegradable polymers with pendant hydroxyl groups to prepare polymer-Oxa(IV) conjugates. A hydrophobic anthracycline-based drug, daunorubicin (DRB) was conjugated to similar biodegradable polymers with carboxyl groups to synthesize polymer-DRB conjugates. The two drug conjugates have the similar polymer backbone and are amphiphilic; thus, they can co-assemble into composite micelles. In the composite micelles, the polymer-Oxa(IV) conjugates can release clinically widely used water soluble anticancer drug oxaliplatin (Oxa(II)) upon reduction, while polymer-DRB conjugate is thought to release DRB via acid hydrolysis in the cancer cells. In this way, combination of the hydrophilic platinum drug Oxa(II) and hydrophobic drug DRB can be realized by delivering them in one platform. Moreover, the composite micelles showed reduced systematic toxicity and greater synergistic effect than combination of small molecules of the two anticancer drugs both in vitro and in vivo; thus, this polymer based combination therapy can be useful in future clinic application.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haihua Xiao
- State Key Laboratory of Polymer Physics and Chemistry, Changchun Institute of Applied Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun 130022, People's Republic of China
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Maya S, Sabitha M, Nair SV, Jayakumar R. Phytomedicine-Loaded Polymeric Nanomedicines: Potential Cancer Therapeutics. MULTIFACETED DEVELOPMENT AND APPLICATION OF BIOPOLYMERS FOR BIOLOGY, BIOMEDICINE AND NANOTECHNOLOGY 2012. [DOI: 10.1007/12_2012_195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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Zuo A, Yanying Y, Li J, Binbin X, Xiongying Y, Yan Q, Shuwen C. Study on the relation of structure and antioxidant activity of isorhamnetin, quercetin, phloretin, silybin and phloretin isonicotinyl hydrazone. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011. [DOI: 10.5530/ax.2011.4.7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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Saxena A, Saxena A, Singh J, Bhushan S. Natural antioxidants synergistically enhance the anticancer potential of AP9-cd, a novel lignan composition from Cedrus deodara in human leukemia HL-60 cells. Chem Biol Interact 2010; 188:580-90. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cbi.2010.09.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2010] [Revised: 09/17/2010] [Accepted: 09/29/2010] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
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Deep G, Agarwal R. Antimetastatic efficacy of silibinin: molecular mechanisms and therapeutic potential against cancer. Cancer Metastasis Rev 2010; 29:447-63. [PMID: 20714788 PMCID: PMC3928361 DOI: 10.1007/s10555-010-9237-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 163] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Cancer is a major health problem around the world. Research efforts in the last few decades have been successful in providing better and effective treatments against both early stage and localized cancer, but clinical options against advanced metastatic stage/s of cancer remain limited. The high morbidity and mortality in most of the cancers are attributed to their metastatic spread to distant organs. Due to its extreme clinical relevance, metastasis has been extensively studied and is now understood as a highly complex biological event that involves multiple steps including acquisition of invasiveness by cancer cells, intravasation into circulatory system, survival in the circulation, arrest in microvasculature, extravasation, and growth at distant organs. The increasing understanding of molecular underpinnings of these events has provided excellent opportunity to target metastasis especially through nontoxic and biologically effective nutraceuticals. Silibinin, a popular dietary supplement isolated from milk thistle seed extracts, is one such natural agent that has shown biological efficacy through pleiotropic mechanisms against a variety of cancers and is currently in clinical trials. Recent preclinical studies have also shown strong efficacy of silibinin to target cancer cell's migratory and invasive characteristics as well as their ability to metastasize to distant organs. Detailed mechanistic analyses revealed that silibinin targets signaling molecules involved in the regulation of epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition, proteases activation, adhesion, motility, invasiveness as well as the supportive tumor-microenvironment components, thereby inhibiting metastasis. Overall, the long history of human use, remarkable nontoxicity, and preclinical efficacy strongly favor the clinical use of silibinin against advanced metastatic cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gagan Deep
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Colorado Denver, Aurora, Colorado 80045
- University of Colorado Cancer Center, University of Colorado Denver, Aurora, Colorado 80045
| | - Rajesh Agarwal
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Colorado Denver, Aurora, Colorado 80045
- University of Colorado Cancer Center, University of Colorado Denver, Aurora, Colorado 80045
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Chemotherapeutic activity of silymarin combined with doxorubicin or paclitaxel in sensitive and multidrug-resistant colon cancer cells. Cancer Chemother Pharmacol 2010; 67:369-79. [PMID: 20431887 DOI: 10.1007/s00280-010-1335-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2010] [Accepted: 04/14/2010] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE The milk thistle extract silymarin, alone or in combined chemotherapy, is now under investigation in anticancer research, with particular interest for its possible employ in the treatment of chemoresistant tumours. So far, the consequences of a silymarin pre-treatment have not been thoroughly investigated. We studied whether silymarin pre-treatment synergized with chemotherapy, exploring the dose-dependence of the interaction in sensitive and multidrug-resistant cells. METHODS We studied cell cycle perturbations induced by silymarin in two colon carcinoma cell lines, LoVo and the multidrug-resistant isogenic LoVo/DX. Synergism/additivity/antagonism of silymarin-doxorubicin silymarin-paclitaxel combined treatments were evaluated by isobologram/combination index analysis, in the whole spectrum of active and sub-active concentrations of all drugs. The mechanisms of silymarin interaction with the other drugs were investigated by measuring drug uptake and cell cycle perturbations. RESULTS Silymarin had similar antiproliferative activity against both cell lines. Pre-treatment with low silymarin concentrations synergised with both doxorubicin and paclitaxel in LoVo but not in LoVo/DX. Higher silymarin concentrations were additive with doxorubicin and paclitaxel in both cell lines. Silymarin favourably interfered with uptake and cell cycle effects of the chemotherapeutics in LoVo but not in LoVo/DX. CONCLUSION These findings confirm activity of silymarin against colon carcinoma, including multidrug-resistant types, at relatively high but clinically achievable concentrations. In view of its low toxicity, two schedules based on low- and high-dose silymarin pre-treatment might offer a valuable option for combined treatment.
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Harasstani OA, Moin S, Tham CL, Liew CY, Ismail N, Rajajendram R, Harith HH, Zakaria ZA, Mohamad AS, Sulaiman MR, Israf DA. Flavonoid combinations cause synergistic inhibition of proinflammatory mediator secretion from lipopolysaccharide-induced RAW 264.7 cells. Inflamm Res 2010; 59:711-21. [PMID: 20221843 DOI: 10.1007/s00011-010-0182-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2009] [Revised: 01/15/2010] [Accepted: 02/17/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES We evaluated several flavonoid combinations for synergy in the inhibition of proinflammatory mediator synthesis in the RAW 264.7 cellular model of inflammation. METHODS The inhibitory effect of chrysin, kaempferol, morin, silibinin, quercetin, diosmin and hesperidin upon nitric oxide (NO), prostaglandin E(2) (PGE(2)) and tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) secretion from the LPS-induced RAW 264.7 monocytic macrophage was assessed and IC(50) values obtained. Flavonoids that showed reasonable inhibitory effects in at least two out of the three assays were combined in a series of fixed IC(50) ratios and reassessed for inhibition of NO, PGE(2) and TNF-alpha. Dose-response curves were generated and interactions were analysed using isobolographic analysis. RESULTS The experiments showed that only chrysin, kaempferol, morin, and silibinin were potent enough to produce dose-response effects upon at least two out of the three mediators assayed. Combinations of these four flavonoids showed that several combinations afforded highly significant synergistic effects. CONCLUSIONS Some flavonoids are synergistic in their anti-inflammatory effects when combined. In particular chrysin and kaempferol significantly synergised in their inhibitory effect upon NO, PGE(2) and TNF-alpha secretion. These findings open further avenues of research into combinatorial therapeutics of inflammatory-related diseases and the pharmacology of flavonoid synergy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Omar A Harasstani
- Department of Biomedical Science, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
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Liu H, Du X, Yuan Q, Zhu L. Optimisation of enzyme assisted extraction of silybin from the seeds of Silybum marianum by Box-Behnken experimental design. PHYTOCHEMICAL ANALYSIS : PCA 2009; 20:475-83. [PMID: 19676047 DOI: 10.1002/pca.1149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2009] [Accepted: 06/08/2009] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Silybin, a standardised extract of flavanolignans from the seeds of Silybum marianum, has been used for centuries as a natural remedy in the treatment of hepatitis and cirrhosis. The higher yield of silybin by using more efficient extraction technique is of particular interest in the herbal products manufacture. OBJECTIVE To systematically investigate the important factors of enzyme-assisted extraction of flavanolignans from the seeds of Silybum marianum to enhance the extraction yield of silybin. METHODOLOGY The important factors of enzyme-assisted extraction were optimised by employing Box-Behnken design with the aid of the orthogonal array design (OAD) OA(8) (2(7)). The effects of enzyme incubation temperature (EIT), the pH of enzyme solution (PES) and the size of seeds (SS) on the yield of silybin were visualised as three-dimensional response surface and contour plots. RESULTS The predictive yield was 24.6 mg/g defatted seeds under the optimum enzymolysis conditions (EIT 40 degrees C, PES 4.5 and SS 7003 microm). The coefficient of the model was r(2) > 0.97 (n = 15). The actual yield of silybin was 24.81 + or - 1.93 mg/g defatted seeds, higher by 138 and 123.6% than that from ethanol extraction in this study and in the previous literature, respectively. IR spectra and HPLC of the extracts by EAE were in agreement with those from ethanol extraction. SEM and TEM pictures of defatted seeds by variant extractions demonstrate that the extraction of silybin depends on the destruction of cell walls. CONCLUSION The results suggest that EAE is a promising alternative for the extraction of silybin by the use of traditional ethanol extraction.
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Abstract
Synergy is one of the governing principles of the natural world, and is one of the reasons for the increasing complexity of the evolutionary process. Broadly speaking, it relates to the cooperative effects produced by the interaction between various forces, elements, parts or individuals in a given context. Since the last century, some clinical studies have described the increased efficiency of a combination of drugs. To study the effects of the drug interactions, the most commonly cited model is that of Loewe, and the classical graphical representation is the iso-effect curve (isobologram). Plants contain an enormous diversity of specialized micromolecules, therefore there is a high likelihood of interactions between them. Through recent synergy studies, various synergistic interactions have been demonstrated among extracts of different plants, and between components of the same extract.
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Ramasamy K, Agarwal R. Multitargeted therapy of cancer by silymarin. Cancer Lett 2008; 269:352-62. [PMID: 18472213 DOI: 10.1016/j.canlet.2008.03.053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 244] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2008] [Revised: 01/08/2008] [Accepted: 03/28/2008] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Silymarin, a flavonolignan from milk thistle (Silybum marianum) plant, is used for the protection against various liver conditions in both clinical settings and experimental models. In this review, we summarize the recent investigations and mechanistic studies regarding possible molecular targets of silymarin for cancer prevention. Number of studies has established the cancer chemopreventive role of silymarin in both in vivo and in vitro models. Silymarin modulates imbalance between cell survival and apoptosis through interference with the expressions of cell cycle regulators and proteins involved in apoptosis. In addition, silymarin also showed anti-inflammatory as well as anti-metastatic activity. Further, the protective effects of silymarin and its major active constituent, silibinin, studied in various tissues, suggest a clinical application in cancer patients as an adjunct to established therapies, to prevent or reduce chemotherapy as well as radiotherapy-induced toxicity. This review focuses on the chemistry and analogues of silymarin, multiple possible molecular mechanisms, in vitro as well as in vivo anti-cancer activities, and studies on human clinical trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kumaraguruparan Ramasamy
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Colorado Denver, 4200 East Ninth Street, Box C238, Denver, CO 80262, USA
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Flavonoid, silibinin, inhibits proliferation and promotes cell-cycle arrest of human colon cancer. J Surg Res 2007; 143:58-65. [PMID: 17950073 DOI: 10.1016/j.jss.2007.03.080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 119] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2007] [Revised: 03/14/2007] [Accepted: 03/26/2007] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Anti-oxidative extracts from the milk thistle plant (Silybum marianum) have been shown to have antiproliferative effects in several tumor types. Silibinin is the primary active component isolated from the crude seed extract, silymarin. It has been used as a dietary supplement for hepatoprotection for over 2000 years. Silibinin has been shown to be safe in multiple animal models and has had no significant adverse events in human studies. We investigated the potential for this nontoxic flavolignan to inhibit proliferation of human colon cancer. MATERIALS AND METHODS Three well-characterized cell lines, Fet, Geo, and HCT116, were studied. The MTT cell-viability assay was performed to study the effect of silibinin on proliferation. Fluorescence-activated cell sorter (FACS) analysis was used to determine the effects of silibinin on cell cycle and apoptosis. 4', 6'-diamidine-2'-phenylindole (DAPI) staining with confocal microscopy was used to morphologically confirm these results. Poly ADP-ribose polymerase (PARP) cleavage and expression levels of p21, p27, cyclins B1/D1, and CDK-2 were measured. Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) levels were also measured. The experiments were performed in triplicate and reported as mean values with standard errors. Means were contrasted using analysis of variance with Dunnet's correction for multiple testing. All statistical testing was two-sided with a significance level of 5%. RESULTS The MTT assay revealed a strong dose-dependent inhibitory effect. Treatment with 75 microg/mL resulted in 50% inhibition of cell-viability (IC-50) in Fet and Geo lines at 72 h. An IC50 dose of 40 ug/mL was obtained in HCT116, a poorly-differentiated cell line, at 72 h. FACS analysis demonstrated statistically significant cell-cycle arrest in all cell lines. G(2)-M phase arrests in Fet and Geo cell lines (P < 0.001) and a G1 arrest in HCT116 (P = 0.005) were noted. Trivial increases in early apoptotic rates (2% to 3%) for Geo and HCT116 were noted on FACS analysis via annexin V-propidium iodide technique (P < 0.05), but no evidence for apoptosis was seen on Western blot for PARP cleavage or DAPI. Cyclin B1/D1 and CDK-2 levels were inhibited. Increased expression of cell cycle inhibitors, p21 or p27, was noted, and there was no effect on COX-2 expression. CONCLUSIONS Silibinin significantly inhibits proliferation through cell-cycle arrest via inhibition of cyclin-CDK promoter activity. Despite its antioxidant profile, there is no effect on COX-2 expression. Apoptosis does not appear to be greatly increased in human colon cancer cell lines Fet, Geo, and HCT116. Rather, inhibition of cell cycle regulatory proteins plays a fundamental role in silibinin's mechanism of action, and this may serve as a basis for combined use with conventional chemotherapeutics.
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Abstract
Silymarin (Silybum marianum [L.] Gaertn. [Asteraceae]) is a promising agent for cancer prevention, adjuvant cancer treatment, and reduction of iatrogenic toxicity. Although it is safe and free of serious adverse side effects, few studies have evaluated its use alongside conventional cytotoxic therapies, and adverse events associated with long-term administration are uncertain. Although it may prevent some types of cancer, its promotion of tissue regeneration and its potential estrogen activity could promote the growth of some tumors. Further clinical trials using authenticated fractions of silymarin as simple and complex derivatives are required prior to any general recommendations. Future research should focus on authentication of active chemicals, pharmacokinetics, adverse interactions and quality control, prevention of cancer initiation and progression, adjuvant therapy for specific cancers, and prevention of toxicity from anticancer therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen M Sagar
- McMaster University and Juravinski Cancer Centre, 699 Concession Street, Hamilton, ON L8V 5C2, Canada.
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Post-White J, Ladas EJ, Kelly KM. Advances in the use of milk thistle (Silybum marianum). Integr Cancer Ther 2007; 6:104-9. [PMID: 17548789 DOI: 10.1177/1534735407301632] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Milk thistle (Silybum marianum) is an herbal supplement used to treat liver and biliary disorders. Silymarin, a mixture of flavanoid complexes, is the active component that protects liver and kidney cells from toxic effects of drugs, including chemotherapy. Although milk thistle has not significantly altered the course of chronic liver disease, it has reduced liver enzyme levels and demonstrated anti-inflammatory and T cell-modulating effects. There is strong preclinical evidence for silymarin's hepatoprotective and anticarcinogenic effects, including inhibition of cancer cell growth in human prostate, skin, breast, and cervical cells. Milk thistle is considered safe and well-tolerated, with gastrointestinal upset, a mild laxative effect, and rare allergic reaction being the only adverse events reported when taken within the recommended dose range. More clinical trials of rigorous methodology, using standardized and well-defined products and dosages, are needed to evaluate the potential of silymarin against liver toxicity, chronic liver disease, and human cancers.
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Kéki S, Tóth K, Zsuga M, Ferenczi R, Antus S. (+)-Silybin, a pharmacologically active constituent of Silybum marianum: fragmentation studies by atmospheric pressure chemical ionization quadrupole time-of-flight tandem mass spectrometry. RAPID COMMUNICATIONS IN MASS SPECTROMETRY : RCM 2007; 21:2255-62. [PMID: 17569099 DOI: 10.1002/rcm.3081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
The fragmentation behavior of (+)-silybin (1) and (+)-deuterosilybin (2), as well as of their flavanone-3-ol-type building blocks, such as 3,5,7-trihydroxy-2-phenyl-4-chromanone (3) and 2-(1,4-benzodioxolanyl)-3,5,7-trihydroxy-4-chromanone (4), were investigated by atmospheric pressure chemical ionization quadropole time-of-flight tandem mass spectrometry in the positive ion mode (APCI(+)-QqTOF MS/MS). The product ion spectra of the protonated molecules of 1 revealed a rather complicated fragmentation pattern with product ions originating from consecutive and competitive loss of small molecules such as H2O, CO, CH2O, CH3OH and 2-methoxyphenol, along with the A+- and B+-type ions arising from the cleavage of the C-ring of the flavanone-3-ol moiety. The elucidation of the fragmentation behavior of 1 was facilitated by acquiring information on the fragmentation characteristics of the flavanone-3-ol moieties and 2. The capability of the accurate mass measurement on the quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometer allowed us to determine the elemental composition of each major product ion. Second-generation product ion spectra obtained by combination of in-source collision induced dissociation (CID) with selective CID (pseudo-MS(3)) was also helpful in elaborating the fragmentation pathways and mechanism. Based on the experimental results, a fragmentation mechanism as well as fragmentation pathways for 1 and its flavanone-3-ol building blocks (3, 4) are proposed and discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sándor Kéki
- Department of Applied Chemistry, University of Debrecen, H-4010 Debrecen, P.O. Box 1, Hungary.
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Kaur M, Agarwal R. Silymarin and epithelial cancer chemoprevention: how close we are to bedside? Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2006; 224:350-9. [PMID: 17184801 PMCID: PMC2692696 DOI: 10.1016/j.taap.2006.11.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2006] [Revised: 11/08/2006] [Accepted: 11/09/2006] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Failure and high systemic toxicity of conventional cancer therapies have accelerated the focus on the search for newer agents, which could prevent and/or slow-down cancer growth and have more human acceptability by being less or non-toxic. Silymarin is one such agent, which has been extensively used since ages for the treatment of liver conditions, and thus has possibly the greatest patient acceptability. In recent years, increasing body of evidence has underscored the cancer preventive efficacy of silymarin in both in vitro and in vivo animal models of various epithelial cancers. Apart from chemopreventive effects, other noteworthy aspects of silymarin and its active constituent silibinin in cancer treatment include their capability to potentiate the efficacy of known chemotherapeutic drugs, as an inhibitor of multidrug resistance-associated proteins and as an adjunct to the cancer therapeutic drugs due to their organ-protective efficacy specifically liver, and immunostimulatory effects. Widespread use of silymarin for liver health in humans and commercial availability of its formulations with increased bioavailability, further underscore the necessity of carrying out controlled clinical trials with these agents in cancer patients. In this review, we will briefly discuss the outcomes of clinical trials being conducted by us and others in cancer patients to provide insight into the clinical relevance of the observed chemopreventive effects of these agents in various epithelial cancer models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manjinder Kaur
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Colorado Health Sciences Center, Denver, CO 80262, USA
| | - Rajesh Agarwal
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Colorado Health Sciences Center, Denver, CO 80262, USA
- University of Colorado Cancer Center, University of Colorado Health Sciences Center, Denver, CO 80262, USA
- Address for Correspondence, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Colorado Health Sciences Center, 4200 East Ninth Street, Box C238, Denver, CO 80262. Phone: (303) 315-1381, Fax: (303) 315-6281, E-mail:
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Lee DYW, Zhang X, Ji XS. Preparation of tritium-labeled Silybin—a protectant for common liver diseases. J Labelled Comp Radiopharm 2006. [DOI: 10.1002/jlcr.1132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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Garg AK, Buchholz TA, Aggarwal BB. Chemosensitization and radiosensitization of tumors by plant polyphenols. Antioxid Redox Signal 2005; 7:1630-47. [PMID: 16356126 DOI: 10.1089/ars.2005.7.1630] [Citation(s) in RCA: 193] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
The treatment of cancer with chemotherapeutic agents and radiation has two major problems: time-dependent development of tumor resistance to therapy (chemoresistance and radioresistance) and nonspecific toxicity toward normal cells. Many plant-derived polyphenols have been studied intently for their potential chemopreventive properties and are pharmacologically safe. These compounds include genistein, curcumin, resveratrol, silymarin, caffeic acid phenethyl ester, flavopiridol, emodin, green tea polyphenols, piperine, oleandrin, ursolic acid, and betulinic acid. Recent research has suggested that these plant polyphenols might be used to sensitize tumor cells to chemotherapeutic agents and radiation therapy by inhibiting pathways that lead to treatment resistance. These agents have also been found to be protective from therapy-associated toxicities. How these polyphenols protect normal cells and sensitize tumor cells to treatment is discussed in this review.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amit K Garg
- Department of Radiation Oncology, The University of Texas M.D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX 77030, USA
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Kren V, Walterová D. Silybin and silymarin--new effects and applications. Biomed Pap Med Fac Univ Palacky Olomouc Czech Repub 2005; 149:29-41. [PMID: 16170386 DOI: 10.5507/bp.2005.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 257] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
This article aims to review critically literature published mainly within this millennium on the new and emerging applications of silymarin, the polyphenolic fraction from the seeds of Silybum marianum and its main component silybin. Silymarin and silybin used so far mostly as hepatoprotectants were shown to have other interesting activities as e.g., anticancer and canceroprotective. These activities were demonstrated in a large variety of illnesses of different organs as e.g., prostate, lungs, CNS, kidneys, pancreas and others. Besides the cytoprotective activity of silybin mediated by its antioxidative and radical-scavenging properties also new activities based on the specific receptor interaction were discovered--e.g., inhibition and modulation of drug transporters, P-glycoproteins, estrogenic receptors, nuclear receptors and some others. New derivatives of silybin open new ways to its therapeutic applications. Pharmacology dealing with optically pure silybin diastereomers may suggest new mechanisms of its action.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vladimír Kren
- Institute of Microbiology, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Prague
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Ferenczi R, Kurtán T, Dinya Z, Antus S. SYNTHESIS OF DEUTERIUM LABELED SILYBIN AND ISOSILYBIN. HETEROCYCL COMMUN 2005. [DOI: 10.1515/hc.2005.11.6.491] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
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Samu Z, Nyiredy S, Baitz-Gács E, Varga Z, Kurtán T, Dinya Z, Antus S. Structure elucidation and antioxidant activity of (-)-isosilandrin isolated from Silybum marianum L. Chem Biodivers 2004; 1:1668-77. [PMID: 17191807 DOI: 10.1002/cbdv.200490125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
A regioisomer of the known flavanolignan (-)-silandrin (3a), named (-)-isosilandrin (8a), was isolated from the fruits of a white-flowered variant of Silybum marianum L. populated in Hungary. Its structure was established both by spectroscopic methods and total synthesis, and its absolute configuration was determined by means of circular dichroism. This compound showed stronger inhibitory activity on the superoxide anion (O2*-) release by human polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNL) than (+)-silybin (1a,b).
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Affiliation(s)
- Zsuzsanna Samu
- Research Institute for Medicinal Plants, P.O. Box 11, H-2011 Budakalász
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Gallo D, Giacomelli S, Ferlini C, Raspaglio G, Apollonio P, Prislei S, Riva A, Morazzoni P, Bombardelli E, Scambia G. Antitumour activity of the silybin-phosphatidylcholine complex, IdB 1016, against human ovarian cancer. Eur J Cancer 2003; 39:2403-10. [PMID: 14556934 DOI: 10.1016/s0959-8049(03)00624-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
This study aimed to assess, in an in vivo experimental model, the growth inhibitory effects of IdB 1016 (Silipide, a complex of silybin/phosphatidylcholine) when used as a single agent against human ovarian cancer. We also wanted to investigate the mechanism of the antiangiogenic action by assessing Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor (VEGF) levels and by using macroarray technology to evaluate the regulation of a panel of genes involved in angiogenesis. We also aimed to establish the plasma and tumour bioavailability of silybin after repeated administration of IdB 1016. Female nude mice bearing human ovarian cancer xenografts (A2780) received 450 mg/kg/day IdB 1016 daily by oral gavage until the end of the study. At sacrifice, blood and tumour specimens were collected and subsequently processed for the determination of silybin levels, VEGF levels or a gene expression profile. IdB 1016 was significantly active in inhibiting ovarian tumour growth. Treatment with 450 mg/kg/day for a total of 20 administrations produced a tumour weight inhibition (TWI%) of 78% and a Log10 Cell Kill (LCK) of 1.1. Free silybin levels were found to be 7.0+/-5.3 microg/ml and 183.5+/-85.9 ng/g tissue (mean+/-standard deviation (S.D.)) in the plasma and tumour samples, respectively. No significant differences were found in the concentration of human VEGF in xenografts from control and IdB 1016-treated mice. The array analysis suggested the downregulation of the VEGR receptor 3 and the upregulation of angiopoietin-2 as potential mechanisms for the antiangiogenic activity. In conclusion, these findings suggest IdB 1016 is a good candidate, with a relevant clinical potential, for use in the management of recurrent ovarian cancer. A phase II, non-randomised clinical study is now ongoing in our Institute aimed at evaluating the efficacy of daily administrations of IdB 1016 in the serological recurrence of ovarian cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Gallo
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Catholic University of the Sacred Heart, Lgo A. Gemelli, 8-00168, Rome, Italy
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Dhanalakshmi S, Agarwal P, Glode LM, Agarwal R. Silibinin sensitizes human prostate carcinoma DU145 cells to cisplatin- and carboplatin-induced growth inhibition and apoptotic death. Int J Cancer 2003; 106:699-705. [PMID: 12866029 DOI: 10.1002/ijc.11299] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
In several recent studies, we have shown that silibinin inhibits the growth of human prostate cancer cells (PCA) both in vitro and in vivo. Here, we investigated the effect of silibinin in combination with cisplatin and carboplatin on human PCA DU145 cell growth and apoptosis. Cisplatin alone at 2 microg/ml dose produced 48% cell growth inhibition, whereas a combination with 50-100 microM silibinin resulted in 63-80% (p<0.05-0.001) growth inhibition. Similarly, compared to 68% growth inhibition at 20 microg/ml carboplatin, addition of 50-100 microM doses of silibinin caused 80-90% inhibition (p<0.005-0.001). In the studies assessing the effect of these combinations on cell cycle progression, a combination of cisplatin or carboplatin with silibinin resulted in a stronger G2-M arrest, compared to these agents alone showing a moderate G2-M and G1 arrests in case of cisplatin and silibinin, and a complete S phase arrest with carboplatin, respectively. A stronger G2-M arrest by these combinations was accompanied by a substantial decrease in the levels of cdc2, cyclin B1 and cdc25C. Silibinin/platinum compound combinations were also effective in inducing apoptosis where cisplatin and carboplatin when combined with silibinin enhanced apoptosis from 8 to 15% and from 20 to 40%, respectively. Apoptosis induction was further confirmed by PARP and caspases 3, 9 and 7 whose cleaved levels were also enhanced by combination treatment. In addition, there was a significant increase in cytochrome c release in the cytosol following treatment of DU145 cells with these combinations. Together, these results show a substantial increase in the efficacy of platinum compounds on human PCA cells, when combined with silibinin, which provide a rationale for further investigations with these combinations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sivanandhan Dhanalakshmi
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Colorado Health Sciences Center, Denver, CO 80262, USA
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Abascal K, Yarnell E. The Many Faces of Silybum marianum (Milk Thistle): Part 1 - Treating Cancer and Hyperlipidemia and Restoring Kidney Function. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2003. [DOI: 10.1089/107628003322256878] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
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