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Gassen L, Esters L, Ribas-Ribas M, Wurl O. The impact of rainfall on the sea surface salinity: a mesocosm study. Sci Rep 2024; 14:6353. [PMID: 38491212 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-56915-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2023] [Accepted: 03/12/2024] [Indexed: 03/18/2024] Open
Abstract
Sea surface salinity may serve as a tracer for freshwater fluxes because it is linked to evaporation and precipitation that force the freshwater balance of the ocean's surface. The relationship between freshwater fluxes and salinity anomalies in the upper few centimeters remains widely unknown. In a mechanistic approach, we investigated how these anomalies develop by conducting experiments with artificial rain over a large basin. We measured conductivity and temperature at different depths and rain characteristics (intensity, rain temperature, droplet sizes, and velocities). In the absence of turbulence, the rain causes a strong salinity change of up to 6.02 g kg- 1 in 0-4 cm depth. At the highest rain intensity of 56 mm h- 1 , salinity changed thrice as fast as at an intensity of 18 mm h- 1 . At the sea surface microlayer (first millimeter of the surface) the anomalies are always highest and reached a maximum of 14.18 g kg- 1 . With mechanical mixing, salinity changes were less pronounced (maximum SML salinity anomaly: 6.17 g kg- 1 ), and freshwater was mixed fast with the existing seawater body. In general, our study shows that freshwater remains in the upper few centimeters, and even with induced turbulence, are not mixed below 16 cm.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa Gassen
- Center for Marine Sensors (ZfMarS), Institute for Chemistry and Biology of the Marine Environment (ICBM), School of Mathematics and Science, Carl von Ossietzky Universität Oldenburg, Ammerländer Heerstraße 114-118, 26129, Oldenburg, Germany.
| | - Leonie Esters
- Institute for Geosciences, University of Bonn, Bonn, 53115, Germany
- Department of Earth Science, LUVAL, Uppsala University, Uppsala, 75236, Sweden
| | - Mariana Ribas-Ribas
- Center for Marine Sensors (ZfMarS), Institute for Chemistry and Biology of the Marine Environment (ICBM), School of Mathematics and Science, Carl von Ossietzky Universität Oldenburg, Ammerländer Heerstraße 114-118, 26129, Oldenburg, Germany
| | - Oliver Wurl
- Center for Marine Sensors (ZfMarS), Institute for Chemistry and Biology of the Marine Environment (ICBM), School of Mathematics and Science, Carl von Ossietzky Universität Oldenburg, Ammerländer Heerstraße 114-118, 26129, Oldenburg, Germany
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2
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A New Empirical Estimation Scheme for Daily Net Radiation at the Ocean Surface. REMOTE SENSING 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/rs13204170] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Ocean surface net radiation (Rn) is significant in research on the Earth’s heat balance systems, air–sea interactions, and other applications. However, there have been few studies on Rn until now. Based on radiative and meteorological measurements collected from 66 globally distributed moored buoys, it was found that Rn was dominated by downward shortwave radiation (Rg↓) when the length ratio of daytime (LRD) was greater than 0.4 but dominated by downward longwave radiation (Rl↓) for the other cases (LRD ≤ 0.4). Therefore, an empirical scheme that includes two conditional models named Case 1 (LRD > 0.4) utilizing Rg↓ as a major input and Case 2 (LRD ≤ 0.4) utilizing Rl↓ as a major input for Rn estimation was successfully developed. After validation against in situ Rn, the performance of the empirical scheme was satisfactory with an overall R2 value of 0.972, an RMSE of 9.768 Wm−2, and a bias of −0.092 Wm−2. Specifically, the accuracies of the two conditional models were also very good, with RMSEs of 9.805 and 2.824 Wm−2 and biases of −0.095 and 0.346 Wm−2 for the Case 1 and Case 2 models, respectively. However, due to the limited number of available samples, the performances of these new models were poor in coastal and high-latitude areas, and the models did not work when the LRD was too small (i.e., LRD < 0.3). Overall, the newly developed empirical scheme for Rn estimation has strong potential to be widely used in practical use because of its simple format and high accuracy.
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3
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Yu L, Josey SA, Bingham FM, Lee T. Intensification of the global water cycle and evidence from ocean salinity: a synthesis review. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2020; 1472:76-94. [PMID: 32386251 DOI: 10.1111/nyas.14354] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2020] [Revised: 04/03/2020] [Accepted: 04/08/2020] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The ocean plays a dominant role in the global water cycle. It is the center of action for global evaporation and precipitation and supplies the moisture that falls as continental precipitation. It also acts to some extent as nature's rain gauge, as it tells us about the long-term changes in the global water cycle through monitoring of the changes in ocean surface salinity. As climate warms, the global water cycle is expected to intensify as a result of the strong nonlinear dependence of water vapor pressure (moisture-holding capacity) on temperature. Such change is of great concern, as it has profound socioeconomic impacts throughout the globe. Despite the evidence of an intensified global water cycle, two important questions remain: What is the pattern of the warming-induced intensification of the water cycle? and What is the rate of intensification? Our article provides a synthesis review of recent progress in diagnosing and understanding the changes in both the global water cycle and ocean salinity in recent decades. Targeted numerical ocean model experiments are also reviewed to provide insights into the response of salinity to the changes in evaporation-minus-precipitation flux, meltwater runoff, and ocean warming.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisan Yu
- Department of Physical Oceanography, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole, Massachusetts
| | - Simon A Josey
- National Oceanography Centre, Southampton, United Kingdom
| | - Frederick M Bingham
- Center for Marine Science, University of North Carolina Wilmington, Wilmington, North Carolina
| | - Tong Lee
- Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California
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4
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Smith GC, Allard R, Babin M, Bertino L, Chevallier M, Corlett G, Crout J, Davidson F, Delille B, Gille ST, Hebert D, Hyder P, Intrieri J, Lagunas J, Larnicol G, Kaminski T, Kater B, Kauker F, Marec C, Mazloff M, Metzger EJ, Mordy C, O’Carroll A, Olsen SM, Phelps M, Posey P, Prandi P, Rehm E, Reid P, Rigor I, Sandven S, Shupe M, Swart S, Smedstad OM, Solomon A, Storto A, Thibaut P, Toole J, Wood K, Xie J, Yang Q. Polar Ocean Observations: A Critical Gap in the Observing System and Its Effect on Environmental Predictions From Hours to a Season. FRONTIERS IN MARINE SCIENCE 2019; 6:10.3389/fmars.2019.00429. [PMID: 31534948 PMCID: PMC6750219 DOI: 10.3389/fmars.2019.00429] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
There is a growing need for operational oceanographic predictions in both the Arctic and Antarctic polar regions. In the former, this is driven by a declining ice cover accompanied by an increase in maritime traffic and exploitation of marine resources. Oceanographic predictions in the Antarctic are also important, both to support Antarctic operations and also to help elucidate processes governing sea ice and ice shelf stability. However, a significant gap exists in the ocean observing system in polar regions, compared to most areas of the global ocean, hindering the reliability of ocean and sea ice forecasts. This gap can also be seen from the spread in ocean and sea ice reanalyses for polar regions which provide an estimate of their uncertainty. The reduced reliability of polar predictions may affect the quality of various applications including search and rescue, coupling with numerical weather and seasonal predictions, historical reconstructions (reanalysis), aquaculture and environmental management including environmental emergency response. Here, we outline the status of existing near-real time ocean observational efforts in polar regions, discuss gaps, and explore perspectives for the future. Specific recommendations include a renewed call for open access to data, especially real-time data, as a critical capability for improved sea ice and weather forecasting and other environmental prediction needs. Dedicated efforts are also needed to make use of additional observations made as part of the Year of Polar Prediction (YOPP; 2017-2019) to inform optimal observing system design. To provide a polar extension to the Argo network, it is recommended that a network of ice-borne sea ice and upper-ocean observing buoys be deployed and supported operationally in ice-covered areas together with autonomous profiling floats and gliders (potentially with ice detection capability) in seasonally ice covered seas. Finally, additional efforts to better measure and parameterize surface exchanges in polar regions are much needed to improve coupled environmental prediction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gregory C. Smith
- Environmental Numerical Prediction Research Section, Meteorological Research Division, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Dorval, QC, Canada
| | - Richard Allard
- Stennis Space Center, U.S. Naval Research Laboratory, Bay St. Louis, MS, United States
| | - Marcel Babin
- Takuvik, UMI 3376, Université Laval-CNRS, Quebec City, QC, Canada
| | - Laurent Bertino
- Nansen Environmental and Remote Sensing Center, Bergen, Norway
| | - Matthieu Chevallier
- Division of Marine and Oceanography, Météo France, Toulouse, France
- CNRM, Météo France, CNRS, Université de Toulouse, Toulouse, France
| | - Gary Corlett
- European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites, Darmstadt, Germany
| | - Julia Crout
- Perspecta, Inc., Stennis Space Center, Bay St. Louis, MS, United States
| | - Fraser Davidson
- Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Centre, Fisheries and Oceans Canada, St. John’s, NL, Canada
| | - Bruno Delille
- Chemical Oceanography Unit, Université de Liège, Liège, Belgium
| | - Sarah T. Gille
- Scripps Institution of Oceanography University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, United States
| | - David Hebert
- Stennis Space Center, U.S. Naval Research Laboratory, Bay St. Louis, MS, United States
| | | | - Janet Intrieri
- Physical Sciences Division, NOAA Earth System Research Laboratory, Boulder, CO, United States
| | - José Lagunas
- Takuvik, UMI 3376, Université Laval-CNRS, Quebec City, QC, Canada
| | | | | | | | - Frank Kauker
- Ocean Atmosphere Systems, Hamburg, Germany
- Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research, Bremerhaven, Germany
| | - Claudie Marec
- Takuvik, UMI 3376, Université Laval-CNRS, Quebec City, QC, Canada
- Laboratoire d’Oceanographie Physique et Spatiale, UMR 6523, CNRS – IFREMER – IRD – UBO, Plouzané, France
| | - Matthew Mazloff
- Scripps Institution of Oceanography University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, United States
| | - E. Joseph Metzger
- Stennis Space Center, U.S. Naval Research Laboratory, Bay St. Louis, MS, United States
| | - Calvin Mordy
- Joint Institute for the Study of the Atmosphere and Oceans, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States
| | - Anne O’Carroll
- European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites, Darmstadt, Germany
| | | | - Michael Phelps
- Perspecta, Inc., Stennis Space Center, Bay St. Louis, MS, United States
| | - Pamela Posey
- Perspecta, Inc., Stennis Space Center, Bay St. Louis, MS, United States
| | | | - Eric Rehm
- Takuvik, UMI 3376, Université Laval-CNRS, Quebec City, QC, Canada
| | | | - Ignatius Rigor
- Polar Science Center, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States
| | - Stein Sandven
- Nansen Environmental and Remote Sensing Center, Bergen, Norway
| | - Matthew Shupe
- Physical Sciences Division, NOAA Earth System Research Laboratory, Boulder, CO, United States
- Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, United States
| | - Sebastiaan Swart
- Department of Marine Sciences, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Department of Oceanography, University of Cape Town, Rondebosch, South Africa
| | | | - Amy Solomon
- Earth System Research Laboratory, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Boulder, CO, United States
| | - Andrea Storto
- Centre for Maritime Research and Experimentation, La Spezia, Italy
| | | | - John Toole
- Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole, MA, United States
| | - Kevin Wood
- Joint Institute for the Study of the Atmosphere and Oceans, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States
| | - Jiping Xie
- Nansen Environmental and Remote Sensing Center, Bergen, Norway
| | - Qinghua Yang
- Guangdong Province Key Laboratory for Climate Change and Natural Disaster Studies, School of Atmospheric Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai, China
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5
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Yu L. Global Air-Sea Fluxes of Heat, Fresh Water, and Momentum: Energy Budget Closure and Unanswered Questions. ANNUAL REVIEW OF MARINE SCIENCE 2019; 11:227-248. [PMID: 30156969 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-marine-010816-060704] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
The ocean interacts with the atmosphere via interfacial exchanges of momentum, heat (via radiation and convection), and fresh water (via evaporation and precipitation). These fluxes, or exchanges, constitute the ocean-surface energy and water budgets and define the ocean's role in Earth's climate and its variability on both short and long timescales. However, direct flux measurements are available only at limited locations. Air-sea fluxes are commonly estimated from bulk flux parameterization using flux-related near-surface meteorological variables (winds, sea and air temperatures, and humidity) that are available from buoys, ships, satellite remote sensing, numerical weather prediction models, and/or a combination of any of these sources. Uncertainties in parameterization-based flux estimates are large, and when they are integrated over the ocean basins, they cause a large imbalance in the global-ocean budgets. Despite the significant progress that has been made in quantifying surface fluxes in the past 30 years, achieving a global closure of ocean-surface energy and water budgets remains a challenge for flux products constructed from all data sources. This review provides a personal perspective on three questions: First, to what extent can time-series measurements from air-sea buoys be used as benchmarks for accuracy and reliability in the context of the budget closures? Second, what is the dominant source of uncertainties for surface flux products, the flux-related variables or the bulk flux algorithms? And third, given the coupling between the energy and water cycles, precipitation and surface radiation can act as twin budget constraints-are the community-standard precipitation and surface radiation products pairwise compatible?
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisan Yu
- Department of Physical Oceanography, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole, Massachusetts 02543, USA;
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6
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Josey SA, Hirschi JJM, Sinha B, Duchez A, Grist JP, Marsh R. The Recent Atlantic Cold Anomaly: Causes, Consequences, and Related Phenomena. ANNUAL REVIEW OF MARINE SCIENCE 2018; 10:475-501. [PMID: 28934597 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-marine-121916-063102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Cold ocean temperature anomalies have been observed in the mid- to high-latitude North Atlantic on interannual to centennial timescales. Most notably, a large region of persistently low surface temperatures accompanied by a sharp reduction in ocean heat content was evident in the subpolar gyre from the winter of 2013-2014 to 2016, and the presence of this feature at a time of pervasive warming elsewhere has stimulated considerable debate. Here, we review the role of air-sea interaction and ocean processes in generating this cold anomaly and place it in a longer-term context. We also discuss the potential impacts of surface temperature anomalies for the atmosphere, including the North Atlantic Oscillation and European heat waves; contrast the behavior of the Atlantic with the extreme warm surface event that occurred in the North Pacific over a similar timescale; and consider the possibility that these events represent a response to a change in atmospheric planetary wave forcing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon A Josey
- National Oceanography Centre, University of Southampton Waterfront Campus, Southampton SO14 3ZH, United Kingdom;
| | - Joel J-M Hirschi
- National Oceanography Centre, University of Southampton Waterfront Campus, Southampton SO14 3ZH, United Kingdom;
| | - Bablu Sinha
- National Oceanography Centre, University of Southampton Waterfront Campus, Southampton SO14 3ZH, United Kingdom;
| | - Aurélie Duchez
- National Oceanography Centre, University of Southampton Waterfront Campus, Southampton SO14 3ZH, United Kingdom;
| | - Jeremy P Grist
- National Oceanography Centre, University of Southampton Waterfront Campus, Southampton SO14 3ZH, United Kingdom;
| | - Robert Marsh
- Department of Ocean and Earth Science, University of Southampton, Southampton SO14 3ZH, United Kingdom
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7
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Liu C, Allan RP, Mayer M, Hyder P, Loeb NG, Roberts CD, Valdivieso M, Edwards JM, Vidale P. Evaluation of satellite and reanalysis-based global net surface energy flux and uncertainty estimates. JOURNAL OF GEOPHYSICAL RESEARCH. ATMOSPHERES : JGR 2017; 122:6250-6272. [PMID: 28804697 PMCID: PMC5530441 DOI: 10.1002/2017jd026616] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2017] [Revised: 05/30/2017] [Accepted: 06/01/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
The net surface energy flux is central to the climate system yet observational limitations lead to substantial uncertainty. A combination of satellite-derived radiative fluxes at the top of atmosphere adjusted using the latest estimation of the net heat uptake of the Earth system, and the atmospheric energy tendencies and transports from the ERA-Interim reanalysis are used to estimate surface energy flux globally. To consider snowmelt and improve regional realism, land surface fluxes are adjusted through a simple energy balance approach at each grid point. This energy adjustment is redistributed over the oceans to ensure energy conservation and maintain realistic global ocean heat uptake, using a weighting function to avoid meridional discontinuities. Calculated surface energy fluxes are evaluated through comparison to ocean reanalyses. Derived turbulent energy flux variability is compared with the Objectively Analyzed air-sea Fluxes (OAFLUX) product, and inferred meridional energy transports in the global ocean and the Atlantic are also evaluated using observations. Uncertainties in surface fluxes are investigated using a variety of approaches including comparison with a range of atmospheric reanalysis products. Decadal changes in the global mean and the interhemispheric energy imbalances are quantified, and present day cross-equator heat transports are reevaluated at 0.22 ± 0.15 PW (petawatts) southward by the atmosphere and 0.32 ± 0.16 PW northward by the ocean considering the observed ocean heat sinks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chunlei Liu
- Department of MeteorologyUniversity of ReadingReadingUK
- National Centre for Earth ObservationReadingUK
| | - Richard P. Allan
- Department of MeteorologyUniversity of ReadingReadingUK
- National Centre for Earth ObservationReadingUK
- National Centre for Atmospheric ScienceReadingUK
| | - Michael Mayer
- Department of Meteorology and GeophysicsUniversity of ViennaViennaAustria
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Pier‐Luigi Vidale
- Department of MeteorologyUniversity of ReadingReadingUK
- National Centre for Atmospheric ScienceReadingUK
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8
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Lovell-Smith JW, Feistel R, Harvey AH, Hellmuth O, Bell SA, Heinonen M, Cooper JR. Metrological challenges for measurements of key climatological observables, Part 4: Atmospheric relative humidity. METROLOGIA 2016; 53:R40-R59. [PMID: 26877551 PMCID: PMC4751591 DOI: 10.1088/0026-1394/53/1/r40] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Water in its three ambient phases plays the central thermodynamic role in the terrestrial climate system. Clouds control Earth's radiation balance, atmospheric water vapour is the strongest "greenhouse" gas, and non-equilibrium relative humidity at the air-sea interface drives evaporation and latent heat export from the ocean. In this paper, we examine the climatologically relevant atmospheric relative humidity, noting fundamental deficiencies in the definition of this key observable. The metrological history of this quantity is reviewed, problems with its current definition and measurement practice are analysed, and options for future improvements are discussed in conjunction with the recent seawater standard TEOS-10. It is concluded that the International Bureau of Weights and Measures, (BIPM), in cooperation with the International Association for the Properties of Water and Steam, IAPWS, along with other international organisations and institutions, can make significant contributions by developing and recommending state-of-the-art solutions for this long standing metrological problem, such as are suggested here.
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Affiliation(s)
- J W Lovell-Smith
- Measurement Standards Laboratory (MSL), Lower Hutt, PO Box 31-310, New Zealand
| | - R Feistel
- Leibniz Institute for Baltic Sea Research (IOW), D-18119 Warnemünde, Germany
| | - A H Harvey
- National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), Boulder, CO 80305-3337, USA
| | - O Hellmuth
- Leibniz Institute for Tropospheric Research (TROPOS), D-04318 Leipzig, Germany
| | - S A Bell
- National Physical Laboratory (NPL), Hampton Road, Teddington, Middlesex, TW11 0LW, UK
| | - M Heinonen
- MIKES Metrology, VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland Ltd, Tekniikantie 1, FI-02151 Espoo, Finland
| | - J R Cooper
- Queen Mary, University of London (QMUL), Mile End Road, London, E1 4NS, UK
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9
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Feistel R, Wielgosz R, Bell SA, Camões MF, Cooper JR, Dexter P, Dickson AG, Fisicaro P, Harvey AH, Heinonen M, Hellmuth O, Kretzschmar HJ, Lovell-Smith JW, McDougall TJ, Pawlowicz R, Ridout P, Seitz S, Spitzer P, Stoica D, Wolf H. Metrological challenges for measurements of key climatological observables: Oceanic salinity and pH, and atmospheric humidity. Part 1: Overview. METROLOGIA 2016; 53:R1-R11. [PMID: 26900179 PMCID: PMC4759657 DOI: 10.1088/0026-1394/53/1/r1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Water in its three ambient phases plays the central thermodynamic role in the terrestrial climate system. Clouds control Earth's radiation balance, atmospheric water vapour is the strongest "greenhouse" gas, and non-equilibrium relative humidity at the air-sea interface drives evaporation and latent heat export from the ocean. On climatic time scales, melting ice caps and regional deviations of the hydrological cycle result in changes of seawater salinity, which in turn may modify the global circulation of the oceans and their ability to store heat and to buffer anthropogenically produced carbon dioxide. In this paper, together with three companion articles, we examine the climatologically relevant quantities ocean salinity, seawater pH and atmospheric relative humidity, noting fundamental deficiencies in the definitions of those key observables, and their lack of secure foundation on the International System of Units, the SI. The metrological histories of those three quantities are reviewed, problems with their current definitions and measurement practices are analysed, and options for future improvements are discussed in conjunction with the recent seawater standard TEOS-10. It is concluded that the International Bureau of Weights and Measures, BIPM, in cooperation with the International Association for the Properties of Water and Steam, IAPWS, along with other international organisations and institutions, can make significant contributions by developing and recommending state-of-the-art solutions for these long standing metrological problems in climatology.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Feistel
- Leibniz Institute for Baltic Sea Research (IOW), D-18119 Warnemünde, Germany
| | - R Wielgosz
- Bureau International des Poids et Mesures (BIPM), Pavillon de Breteuil, F-92312 Sèvres Cedex France
| | - S A Bell
- National Physical Laboratory (NPL), Hampton Road, Teddington, Middlesex, TW11 0LW, UK
| | - M F Camões
- Centro de Química Estrutural, Faculdade de Ciências, University of Lisbon (FCUL), 1749-016 Lisbon, Portugal
| | - J R Cooper
- Queen Mary, University of London (QMUL), Mile End Road, London, E1 4NS, UK
| | - P Dexter
- Bureau of Meteorology (ABN), GPO Box 1289, Melbourne, VIC 3001, Australia
| | - A G Dickson
- University of California, San Diego (UCSD), La Jolla, CA 92093-0244, USA
| | - P Fisicaro
- Laboratoire National de Métrologie et d'Essais (LNE), F-75724 Paris Cedex 15, France
| | - A H Harvey
- National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), Boulder, CO 80305-3337, USA
| | - M Heinonen
- MIKES Metrology, VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland Ltd, Tekniikantie 1, FI-02151 Espoo, Finland
| | - O Hellmuth
- Leibniz Institute for Tropospheric Research (TROPOS), D-04318 Leipzig, Germany
| | - H-J Kretzschmar
- Zittau/Goerlitz University of Applied Sciences (HSZG), D-02763 Zittau, Germany
| | - J W Lovell-Smith
- Measurement Standards Laboratory (MSL), PO Box 31-310, Lower Hutt, New Zealand
| | - T J McDougall
- University of New South Wales (UNSW), Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
| | - R Pawlowicz
- University of British Columbia (UBC), Vancouver, B.C., V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - P Ridout
- Ocean Scientific International Ltd. (OSIL), Culkin House, Penner Road, Havant, PO9 1QN, UK
| | - S Seitz
- Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt (PTB), D-38116 Braunschweig, Germany
| | - P Spitzer
- Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt (PTB), D-38116 Braunschweig, Germany
| | - D Stoica
- Laboratoire National de Métrologie et d'Essais (LNE), F-75724 Paris Cedex 15, France
| | - H Wolf
- Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt (PTB), D-38116 Braunschweig, Germany
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10
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Abstract
Understanding the ocean requires determining and explaining global integrals and equivalent average values of temperature (heat), salinity (freshwater and salt content), sea level, energy, and other properties. Attempts to determine means, integrals, and climatologies have been hindered by thinly and poorly distributed historical observations in a system in which both signals and background noise are spatially very inhomogeneous, leading to potentially large temporal bias errors that must be corrected at the 1% level or better. With the exception of the upper ocean in the current altimetric-Argo era, no clear documentation exists on the best methods for estimating means and their changes for quantities such as heat and freshwater at the levels required for anthropogenic signals. Underestimates of trends are as likely as overestimates; for example, recent inferences that multidecadal oceanic heat uptake has been greatly underestimated are plausible. For new or augmented observing systems, calculating the accuracies and precisions of global, multidecadal sampling densities for the full water column is necessary to avoid the irrecoverable loss of scientifically essential information.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carl Wunsch
- Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138;
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