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Ahmadi Tabar F, Lowdon JW, Bakhshi Sichani S, Khorshid M, Cleij TJ, Diliën H, Eersels K, Wagner P, van Grinsven B. An Overview on Recent Advances in Biomimetic Sensors for the Detection of Perfluoroalkyl Substances. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 24:130. [PMID: 38202993 PMCID: PMC10781331 DOI: 10.3390/s24010130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2023] [Revised: 12/15/2023] [Accepted: 12/23/2023] [Indexed: 01/12/2024]
Abstract
Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are a class of materials that have been widely used in the industrial production of a wide range of products. After decades of bioaccumulation in the environment, research has demonstrated that these compounds are toxic and potentially carcinogenic. Therefore, it is essential to map the extent of the problem to be able to remediate it properly in the next few decades. Current state-of-the-art detection platforms, however, are lab based and therefore too expensive and time-consuming for routine screening. Traditional biosensor tests based on, e.g., lateral flow assays may struggle with the low regulatory levels of PFAS (ng/mL), the complexity of environmental matrices and the presence of coexisting chemicals. Therefore, a lot of research effort has been directed towards the development of biomimetic receptors and their implementation into handheld, low-cost sensors. Numerous research groups have developed PFAS sensors based on molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs), metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) or aptamers. In order to transform these research efforts into tangible devices and implement them into environmental applications, it is necessary to provide an overview of these research efforts. This review aims to provide this overview and critically compare several technologies to each other to provide a recommendation for the direction of future research efforts focused on the development of the next generation of biomimetic PFAS sensors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fatemeh Ahmadi Tabar
- Laboratory for Soft Matter and Biophysics ZMB, Department of Physics and Astronomy, KU Leuven, Celestijnenlaan 200 D, B-3001 Leuven, Belgium; (F.A.T.); (S.B.S.); (M.K.)
- Sensor Engineering Department, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Maastricht University, P.O. Box 616, 6200 MD Maastricht, The Netherlands (T.J.C.); (K.E.); (B.v.G.)
| | - Joseph W. Lowdon
- Sensor Engineering Department, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Maastricht University, P.O. Box 616, 6200 MD Maastricht, The Netherlands (T.J.C.); (K.E.); (B.v.G.)
| | - Soroush Bakhshi Sichani
- Laboratory for Soft Matter and Biophysics ZMB, Department of Physics and Astronomy, KU Leuven, Celestijnenlaan 200 D, B-3001 Leuven, Belgium; (F.A.T.); (S.B.S.); (M.K.)
| | - Mehran Khorshid
- Laboratory for Soft Matter and Biophysics ZMB, Department of Physics and Astronomy, KU Leuven, Celestijnenlaan 200 D, B-3001 Leuven, Belgium; (F.A.T.); (S.B.S.); (M.K.)
| | - Thomas J. Cleij
- Sensor Engineering Department, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Maastricht University, P.O. Box 616, 6200 MD Maastricht, The Netherlands (T.J.C.); (K.E.); (B.v.G.)
| | - Hanne Diliën
- Sensor Engineering Department, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Maastricht University, P.O. Box 616, 6200 MD Maastricht, The Netherlands (T.J.C.); (K.E.); (B.v.G.)
| | - Kasper Eersels
- Sensor Engineering Department, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Maastricht University, P.O. Box 616, 6200 MD Maastricht, The Netherlands (T.J.C.); (K.E.); (B.v.G.)
| | - Patrick Wagner
- Laboratory for Soft Matter and Biophysics ZMB, Department of Physics and Astronomy, KU Leuven, Celestijnenlaan 200 D, B-3001 Leuven, Belgium; (F.A.T.); (S.B.S.); (M.K.)
| | - Bart van Grinsven
- Sensor Engineering Department, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Maastricht University, P.O. Box 616, 6200 MD Maastricht, The Netherlands (T.J.C.); (K.E.); (B.v.G.)
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Emmons RV, Fatigante W, Olomukoro AA, Musselman B, Gionfriddo E. Rapid Screening and Quantification of PFAS Enabled by SPME-DART-MS. JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR MASS SPECTROMETRY 2023; 34:1890-1897. [PMID: 37260314 DOI: 10.1021/jasms.3c00088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), an emerging class of toxic anthropogenic chemicals persistent in the environment, are currently regulated at the low part-per-trillion level worldwide in drinking water. Quantification and screening of these compounds currently rely primarily on liquid chromatography hyphenated to mass spectrometry (LC-MS). The growing need for quicker and more robust analysis in routine monitoring has been, in many ways, spearheaded by the advent of direct ambient mass spectrometry (AMS) technologies. Direct analysis in real time (DART), a plasma-based ambient ionization technique that permits rapid automated analysis, effectively ionizes a broad range of compounds, including PFAS. This work evaluates the performance of DART-MS for the screening and quantification of PFAS of different chemical classes, employing a central composite design (CCD) to better understand the interactions of DART parameters on their ionization. Furthermore, in-source fragmentation of the model PFAS was investigated based on the DART parameters evaluated. Preconcentration of PFAS from water samples was achieved by solid phase microextraction (SPME), and extracts were analyzed using the optimized DART-MS conditions, which allowed obtaining linear dynamic ranges (LDRs) within 10 and 5000 ng/L and LOQs of 10, 25, and 50 ng/L for all analytes. Instrumental analysis was achieved in less than 20 s per sample.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ronald V Emmons
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Toledo, Toledo, Ohio 43606, United States
- Dr. Nina McClelland Laboratory for Water Chemistry and Environmental Analysis, The University of Toledo, Toledo, Ohio 43606, United States
| | - William Fatigante
- Bruker Scientific LLC, Billerica, Massachusetts 01821, United States
| | - Aghogho A Olomukoro
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Toledo, Toledo, Ohio 43606, United States
- Dr. Nina McClelland Laboratory for Water Chemistry and Environmental Analysis, The University of Toledo, Toledo, Ohio 43606, United States
| | - Brian Musselman
- Bruker Scientific LLC, Billerica, Massachusetts 01821, United States
| | - Emanuela Gionfriddo
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Toledo, Toledo, Ohio 43606, United States
- Dr. Nina McClelland Laboratory for Water Chemistry and Environmental Analysis, The University of Toledo, Toledo, Ohio 43606, United States
- School of Green Chemistry and Engineering, The University of Toledo, Toledo, Ohio 43606, United States
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Lenka SP, Kah M, Padhye LP. A review of the occurrence, transformation, and removal of poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in wastewater treatment plants. WATER RESEARCH 2021; 199:117187. [PMID: 34010737 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2021.117187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 167] [Impact Index Per Article: 55.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2021] [Revised: 04/19/2021] [Accepted: 04/20/2021] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) comprise more than 4,000 anthropogenically manufactured compounds with widescale consumer and industrial applications. This critical review compiles the latest information on the worldwide distribution of PFAS and evaluates their fate in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). A large proportion (>30%) of monitoring studies in WWTPs were conducted in China, followed by Europe (30%) and North America (16%), whereas information is generally lacking for other parts of the world, including most of the developing countries. Short and long-chain perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) were widely detected in both the influents (up to 1,000 ng/L) and effluents (15 to >1,500 ng/L) of WWTPs. To date, limited data is available regarding levels of PFAS precursors and ultra-short chain PFAS in WWTPs. Most WWTPs exhibited low removal efficiencies for PFAS, and many studies reported an increase in the levels of PFAAs after wastewater treatment. The analysis of the fate of various classes of PFAS at different wastewater treatment stages (aerobic and/aerobic biodegradation, photodegradation, and chemical degradation) revealed biodegradation as the primary mechanism responsible for the transformation of PFAS precursors to PFAAs in WWTPs. Remediation studies at full scale and laboratory scale suggest advanced processes such as adsorption using ion exchange resins, electrochemical degradation, and nanofiltration are more effective in removing PFAS (~95-100%) than conventional processes. However, the applicability of such treatments for real-world WWTPs faces significant challenges due to the scaling-up requirements, mass-transfer limitations, and management of treatment by-products and wastes. Combining more than one technique for effective removal of PFAS, while addressing limitations of the individual treatments, could be beneficial. Considering environmental concentrations of PFAS, cost-effectiveness, and ease of operation, nanofiltration followed by adsorption using wood-derived biochar and/or activated carbons could be a viable option if introduced to conventional treatment systems. However, the large-scale applicability of the same needs to be further verified.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Melanie Kah
- School of Environment, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Lokesh P Padhye
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand.
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