A critical review of the occurrence of scandium and yttrium in mushrooms

Rare earth contamination of edible vegetation: Ce, La, and summed REE in fungi

The increasing and diversified use of rare earth elements (REE) is considered a potential source of pollution of environmental media including soils. This work documents critically overview data on the occurrence of REE in the fruiting bodies of wild and farmed species of edible and medicinal mushrooms, as this was identified as the largest published dataset of REE occurrence in foodstuff. Most of the literature reported occurrences of cerium (Ce) and lanthanum (La), but a number of studies lacked data on all lanthanides. The Ce, La, and summed REE occurrences were assessed through the criteria of environmental geochemistry, analytical chemistry, food toxicology, mushroom systematics, and ecology. Ce and La accumulate similarly in fruiting bodies and are not fractionated during uptake, maintaining the occurrence patterns of their growing substrates. Similarly, there is no credible evidence of variable REE uptake because the evaluated species data show natural, unfractionated patterns in accordance with the Oddo-Harkins' order of environmental lanthanide occurrence. Thus, lithosphere occurrence patterns of Ce and La as the first and the third most abundant lanthanides are reflected in wild and farmed mushrooms regardless of substrate and show that Ce is around twice more abundant than La. The current state of knowledge provides no evidence that mushroom consumption at these REE occurrence levels poses a health risk either by themselves or when included with other dietary exposure. Macromycetes appear to bio-exclude lanthanides because independently reported bioconcentration factors for different species and collection sites, typically range from < 1 to 0.001. This is reflected in fruiting body concentrations which are four to two orders of magnitude lower than growing substrates. KEY POINTS: •Original REE occurrence patterns in soils/substrates are reflected in mushrooms •No evidence for the fractionation of REE during uptake by fungi •Mushrooms bio-exclude REE in fruiting bodies.