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Byun KT, Kim B, Cho J, Lee I, Lee MG, Park D, Kang TB, Won HS, Kim CG. Development of an Anti-HER2 Single-Chain Variable Antibody Fragment Construct for High-Yield Soluble Expression in Escherichia coli and One-Step Chromatographic Purification. Biomolecules 2023; 13:1508. [PMID: 37892190 PMCID: PMC10605039 DOI: 10.3390/biom13101508] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2023] [Revised: 10/10/2023] [Accepted: 10/10/2023] [Indexed: 10/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Although single-chain variable fragment (scFv) is recognized as a highly versatile scaffold of recombinant antibody fragment molecules, its overexpression in Escherichia coli often leads to the formation of inclusion bodies. To address this issue, we devised and tested four different constructs, named v21, v22, v23 and v24, for producing anti-human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2) scFv. Among them, the v24 construct obtained from N-terminal fusion of maltose-binding protein (MBP) and subsequent tobacco etch virus protease (TEV) was identified as the most efficient construct for the production of anti-HER2 scFv. Aided by an MBP tag, high-yield soluble expression was ensured and soluble scFv was liberated in cells via autonomous proteolytic cleavage by endogenously expressed TEV. The isolated scFv containing a C-terminal hexahistidine tag was purified through a one-step purification via nickel-affinity chromatography. The purified scFv exhibited a strong (nanomolar Kd) affinity to HER2 both in vitro and in cells. Structural and functional stabilities of the scFv during storage for more than one month were also assured. Given the great utility of anti-HER2 scFv as a basic platform for developing therapeutic and diagnostic agents for cancers, the v24 construct and methods presented in this study are expected to provide a better manufacturing system for producing anti-HER2 scFv with various industrial applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyu Tae Byun
- Department of Biotechnology, Research Institute (RIBHS), College of Biomedical and Health Science, Konkuk University, Chungju 27478, Republic of Korea; (K.T.B.); (B.K.)
| | - Boram Kim
- Department of Biotechnology, Research Institute (RIBHS), College of Biomedical and Health Science, Konkuk University, Chungju 27478, Republic of Korea; (K.T.B.); (B.K.)
| | - Junmin Cho
- Department of Biotechnology, Research Institute (RIBHS), College of Biomedical and Health Science, Konkuk University, Chungju 27478, Republic of Korea; (K.T.B.); (B.K.)
| | - Inbeom Lee
- Department of Biotechnology, Research Institute (RIBHS), College of Biomedical and Health Science, Konkuk University, Chungju 27478, Republic of Korea; (K.T.B.); (B.K.)
| | - Myung Gu Lee
- Konkukbio Inc., Konkuk University, Chungju 27478, Republic of Korea
| | - Dongsun Park
- Department of Biology Education, Korea National University of Education, Cheongju 28173, Republic of Korea
| | - Tae-Bong Kang
- Department of Biotechnology, Research Institute (RIBHS), College of Biomedical and Health Science, Konkuk University, Chungju 27478, Republic of Korea; (K.T.B.); (B.K.)
- BK21 Project Team, Department of Applied Life Science, Graduate School, Konkuk University, Chungju 27478, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyung-Sik Won
- Department of Biotechnology, Research Institute (RIBHS), College of Biomedical and Health Science, Konkuk University, Chungju 27478, Republic of Korea; (K.T.B.); (B.K.)
- BK21 Project Team, Department of Applied Life Science, Graduate School, Konkuk University, Chungju 27478, Republic of Korea
| | - Chan Gil Kim
- Department of Biotechnology, Research Institute (RIBHS), College of Biomedical and Health Science, Konkuk University, Chungju 27478, Republic of Korea; (K.T.B.); (B.K.)
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Yu L, Shang Z, Jin Q, Chan SY, Hong W, Li N, Li P. Antibody-Antimicrobial Conjugates for Combating Antibiotic Resistance. Adv Healthc Mater 2023; 12:e2202207. [PMID: 36300640 DOI: 10.1002/adhm.202202207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2022] [Revised: 10/19/2022] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
As the development of new antibiotics lags far behind the emergence of drug-resistant bacteria, alternative strategies to resolve this dilemma are urgently required. Antibody-drug conjugate is a promising therapeutic platform to delivering cytotoxic payloads precisely to target cells for efficient disease treatment. Antibody-antimicrobial conjugates (AACs) have recently attracted considerable interest from researchers as they can target bacteria in the target sites and improve the effectiveness of drugs (i.e., reduced drug dosage and adverse effects), abating the upsurge of antimicrobial resistance. In this review, the selection and progress of three essential blocks that compose the AACs: antibodies, antimicrobial payloads, and linkers are discussed. The commonly used conjugation strategies and the latest applications of AACs in recent years are also summarized. The challenges and opportunities of this booming technology are also discussed at the end of this review.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luofeng Yu
- Frontiers Science Center for Flexible Electronics (FSCFE), Xi'an Institute of Flexible Electronics (IFE), Xi'an Institute of Biomedical Materials and Engineering (IBME), Northwestern Polytechnical University (NPU), 127 West Youyi Road, Xi'an, 710072, China
| | - Zifang Shang
- Frontiers Science Center for Flexible Electronics (FSCFE), Xi'an Institute of Flexible Electronics (IFE), Xi'an Institute of Biomedical Materials and Engineering (IBME), Northwestern Polytechnical University (NPU), 127 West Youyi Road, Xi'an, 710072, China.,Institute of Pediatrics, Shenzhen Children's Hospital, Shenzhen, Guangdong Province, 518026, China.,CAS Key Laboratory of Pathogenic Microbiology and Immunology, Institute of Microbiology Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China
| | - Qizhe Jin
- Frontiers Science Center for Flexible Electronics (FSCFE), Xi'an Institute of Flexible Electronics (IFE), Xi'an Institute of Biomedical Materials and Engineering (IBME), Northwestern Polytechnical University (NPU), 127 West Youyi Road, Xi'an, 710072, China
| | - Siew Yin Chan
- Frontiers Science Center for Flexible Electronics (FSCFE), Xi'an Institute of Flexible Electronics (IFE), Xi'an Institute of Biomedical Materials and Engineering (IBME), Northwestern Polytechnical University (NPU), 127 West Youyi Road, Xi'an, 710072, China.,Institute of Materials Research and Engineering (IMRE), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), 2 Fusionopolis Way, Innovis, #08-03, Singapore, 138634, Singapore
| | - Weilin Hong
- Frontiers Science Center for Flexible Electronics (FSCFE), Xi'an Institute of Flexible Electronics (IFE), Xi'an Institute of Biomedical Materials and Engineering (IBME), Northwestern Polytechnical University (NPU), 127 West Youyi Road, Xi'an, 710072, China
| | - Nan Li
- Frontiers Science Center for Flexible Electronics (FSCFE), Xi'an Institute of Flexible Electronics (IFE), Xi'an Institute of Biomedical Materials and Engineering (IBME), Northwestern Polytechnical University (NPU), 127 West Youyi Road, Xi'an, 710072, China
| | - Peng Li
- Frontiers Science Center for Flexible Electronics (FSCFE), Xi'an Institute of Flexible Electronics (IFE), Xi'an Institute of Biomedical Materials and Engineering (IBME), Northwestern Polytechnical University (NPU), 127 West Youyi Road, Xi'an, 710072, China
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Antibody–Drug Conjugates as an Emerging Therapy in Oncodermatology. Cancers (Basel) 2022; 14:cancers14030778. [PMID: 35159045 PMCID: PMC8833781 DOI: 10.3390/cancers14030778] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2022] [Revised: 01/28/2022] [Accepted: 02/01/2022] [Indexed: 12/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Currently, the therapeutic arsenal to fight cancers is extensive. Among these, antibody–drug conjugates (ADCs) consist in an antibody linked to a cytotoxic agent, allowing a specific delivery to tumor cells. ADCs are an emerging class of therapeutics, with twelve FDA- and EMA-approved drugs for hematological and solid cancers. In recent years, tremendous progress has been observed in therapeutic approaches for advanced skin cancer patients. ADCs appear as an emerging therapeutic option in oncodermatology. After providing an overview of ADC design and development, the goal of this article is to review the potential ADC indications in the field of oncodermatology. Abstract Antibody–drug conjugates (ADCs) are an emerging class of therapeutics, with twelve FDA- and EMA-approved drugs for hematological and solid cancers. Such drugs consist in a monoclonal antibody linked to a cytotoxic agent, allowing a specific cytotoxicity to tumor cells. In recent years, tremendous progress has been observed in therapeutic approaches for advanced skin cancer patients. In this regard, targeted therapies (e.g., kinase inhibitors) or immune checkpoint-blocking antibodies outperformed conventional chemotherapy, with proven benefit to survival. Nevertheless, primary and acquired resistances as well as adverse events remain limitations of these therapies. Therefore, ADCs appear as an emerging therapeutic option in oncodermatology. After providing an overview of ADC design and development, the goal of this article is to review the potential ADC indications in the field of oncodermatology.
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Extracellular production of an anti-HER2 single-chain variable antibody fragment in Escherichia coli. Process Biochem 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.procbio.2021.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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Highly Specific Blood-Brain Barrier Transmigrating Single-Domain Antibodies Selected by an In Vivo Phage Display Screening. Pharmaceutics 2021; 13:pharmaceutics13101598. [PMID: 34683891 PMCID: PMC8540410 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics13101598] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2021] [Revised: 09/09/2021] [Accepted: 09/24/2021] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
A major bottleneck in the successful development of central nervous system (CNS) drugs is the discovery and design of molecules that can cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Nano-delivery strategies are a promising approach that take advantage of natural portals of entry into the brain such as monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) targeting endogenous BBB receptors. However, the main selected mAbs rely on targeting broadly expressed receptors, such as the transferrin and insulin receptors, and in selection processes that do not fully mimic the native receptor conformation, leading to mistargeting and a low fraction of the administered dose effectively reaching the brain. Thus, there is an urgent need to identify new BBB receptors and explore novel antibody selection approaches that can allow a more selective delivery into the brain. Considering that in vitro models fail to completely mimic brain structure complexity, we explored an in vivo cell immunization approach to construct a rabbit derived single-domain antibody (sdAb) library towards BBB endothelial cell receptors. The sdAb antibody library was used in an in vivo phage display screening as a functional selection of novel BBB targeting antibodies. Following three rounds of selections, next generation sequencing analysis, in vitro brain endothelial barrier (BEB) model screenings and in vivo biodistribution studies, five potential sdAbs were identified, three of which reaching >0.6% ID/g in the brain. To validate the brain drug delivery proof-of-concept, the most promising sdAb, namely RG3, was conjugated at the surface of liposomes encapsulated with a model drug, the pan-histone deacetylase inhibitor panobinostat (PAN). The translocation efficiency and activity of the conjugate liposome was determined in a dual functional in vitro BEB-glioblastoma model. The RG3 conjugated PAN liposomes enabled an efficient BEB translocation and presented a potent antitumoral activity against LN229 glioblastoma cells without influencing BEB integrity. In conclusion, our in vivo screening approach allowed the selection of highly specific nano-antibody scaffolds with promising properties for brain targeting and drug delivery.
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Dias JNR, André AS, Aguiar SI, Gil S, Tavares L, Aires-da-Silva F. Immunotherapeutic Strategies for Canine Lymphoma: Changing the Odds Against Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma. Front Vet Sci 2021; 8:621758. [PMID: 34513964 PMCID: PMC8427286 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2021.621758] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2020] [Accepted: 07/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The new era of immune-oncology has brought complexities and challenges that emphasize the need to identify new strategies and models to develop successful and cost-effective therapies. The inclusion of a canine model in the drug development of cancer immunotherapies is being widely recognized as a valid solution to overcome several hurdles associated with conventional preclinical models. Driven by the success of immunotherapies in the treatment of human non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) and by the remarkable similarities of canine NHL to its human counterpart, canine NHL has been one of the main focus of comparative research. Under the present review, we summarize a general overview of the challenges and prospects of today's cancer immunotherapies and the role that comparative medicine might play in solving the limitations brought by this rapidly expanding field. The state of art of both human and canine NHL and the rationale behind the use of the canine model to bridge the translational gap between murine preclinical studies and human clinical trials are addressed. Finally, a review of currently available immunotherapies for canine NHL is described, highlighting the potential of these therapeutic options.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | - Frederico Aires-da-Silva
- Centro de Investigação Interdisciplinar em Sanidade Animal, Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária, Universidade de Lisboa, Avenida da Universidade Técnica, Lisbon, Portugal
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Antibody-Drug Conjugates: The New Frontier of Chemotherapy. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21155510. [PMID: 32752132 PMCID: PMC7432430 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21155510] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2020] [Revised: 07/29/2020] [Accepted: 07/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
In recent years, antibody-drug conjugates (ADCs) have become promising antitumor agents to be used as one of the tools in personalized cancer medicine. ADCs are comprised of a drug with cytotoxic activity cross-linked to a monoclonal antibody, targeting antigens expressed at higher levels on tumor cells than on normal cells. By providing a selective targeting mechanism for cytotoxic drugs, ADCs improve the therapeutic index in clinical practice. In this review, the chemistry of ADC linker conjugation together with strategies adopted to improve antibody tolerability (by reducing antigenicity) are examined, with particular attention to ADCs approved by the regulatory agencies (the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the European Medicines Agency (EMA)) for treating cancer patients. Recent developments in engineering Immunoglobulin (Ig) genes and antibody humanization have greatly reduced some of the problems of the first generation of ADCs, beset by problems, such as random coupling of the payload and immunogenicity of the antibody. ADC development and clinical use is a fast, evolving area, and will likely prove an important modality for the treatment of cancer in the near future.
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Jones BG, Penkert RR, Surman SL, Sealy RE, Hurwitz JL. Nuclear Receptors, Ligands and the Mammalian B Cell. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:E4997. [PMID: 32679815 PMCID: PMC7404052 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21144997] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2020] [Revised: 07/07/2020] [Accepted: 07/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Questions concerning the influences of nuclear receptors and their ligands on mammalian B cells are vast in number. Here, we briefly review the effects of nuclear receptor ligands, including estrogen and vitamins, on immunoglobulin production and protection from infectious diseases. We describe nuclear receptor interactions with the B cell genome and the potential mechanisms of gene regulation. Attention to the nuclear receptor/ligand regulation of B cell function may help optimize B cell responses, improve pathogen clearance, and prevent damaging responses toward inert- and self-antigens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bart G. Jones
- Department of Infectious Diseases, St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, Memphis, TN 38105, USA; (B.G.J.); (R.R.P.); (S.L.S.); (R.E.S.)
| | - Rhiannon R. Penkert
- Department of Infectious Diseases, St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, Memphis, TN 38105, USA; (B.G.J.); (R.R.P.); (S.L.S.); (R.E.S.)
| | - Sherri L. Surman
- Department of Infectious Diseases, St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, Memphis, TN 38105, USA; (B.G.J.); (R.R.P.); (S.L.S.); (R.E.S.)
| | - Robert E. Sealy
- Department of Infectious Diseases, St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, Memphis, TN 38105, USA; (B.G.J.); (R.R.P.); (S.L.S.); (R.E.S.)
| | - Julia L. Hurwitz
- Department of Infectious Diseases, St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, Memphis, TN 38105, USA; (B.G.J.); (R.R.P.); (S.L.S.); (R.E.S.)
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Biochemistry, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN 38163, USA
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Lin Y, Chen Z, Hu C, Chen ZS, Zhang L. Recent progress in antitumor functions of the intracellular antibodies. Drug Discov Today 2020; 25:1109-1120. [DOI: 10.1016/j.drudis.2020.02.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2019] [Revised: 02/10/2020] [Accepted: 02/20/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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Jones BG, Sealy RE, Penkert RR, Surman SL, Birshtein BK, Xu B, Neale G, Maul RW, Gearhart PJ, Hurwitz JL. From Influenza Virus Infections to Lupus: Synchronous Estrogen Receptor α and RNA Polymerase II Binding Within the Immunoglobulin Heavy Chain Locus. Viral Immunol 2020; 33:307-315. [PMID: 32105583 DOI: 10.1089/vim.2019.0144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Males and females respond to pathogens differently and exhibit significantly different frequencies of autoimmune disease. For example, vaccinated adult females control influenza virus better than males, but females suffer systemic lupus erythematosus at a 9:1 frequency compared to males. Numerous explanations have been offered for these sex differences, but most have involved indirect mechanisms by which estrogen, a nuclear hormone, modifies cell barriers or immunity. In search of a direct mechanism, we examined the binding of estrogen receptor α (ERα), a class I nuclear hormone receptor, to the immunoglobulin heavy chain locus. Here, we show that in purified murine B cells, ERα and RNA polymerase II (RNA Pol II) exhibit extraordinarily similar DNA binding patterns. We further demonstrate that ERα preferentially binds adenosine-cytidine (AC)-repeats in the immunoglobulin heavy chain locus when supplemental estrogen is added to purified, lipopolysaccharide-activated B cells. Based on these and previous data, we hypothesize that (i) estrogen guides the binding of ERα and its RNA Pol II partner within the locus, which in turn instructs sterile transcription and class switch recombination (CSR), (ii) ERα binding to AC-repeats modifies the DNA architecture and loops associated with CSR, and (iii) by these mechanisms, estrogen instructs antibody expression. By targeting ERα-DNA interactions in the immunoglobulin heavy chain locus, clinicians may ultimately enhance antibody responses in the context of infectious diseases and reduce antibody responses in the context of allergic or autoimmune reactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bart G Jones
- Department of Infectious Diseases, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee, USA
| | - Robert E Sealy
- Department of Infectious Diseases, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee, USA
| | - Rhiannon R Penkert
- Department of Infectious Diseases, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee, USA
| | - Sherri L Surman
- Department of Infectious Diseases, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee, USA
| | - Barbara K Birshtein
- Department of Cell Biology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York, USA
| | - Beisi Xu
- Department of Computational Biology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee, USA
| | - Geoffrey Neale
- Hartwell Center for Bioinformatics and Biotechnology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee, USA
| | - Robert W Maul
- National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Patricia J Gearhart
- National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Julia L Hurwitz
- Department of Infectious Diseases, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee, USA.,Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Biochemistry, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, Tennessee, USA
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Jones BG, Penkert RR, Surman SL, Sealy RE, Pelletier S, Xu B, Neale G, Maul RW, Gearhart PJ, Hurwitz JL. Matters of life and death: How estrogen and estrogen receptor binding to the immunoglobulin heavy chain locus may influence outcomes of infection, allergy, and autoimmune disease. Cell Immunol 2019; 346:103996. [PMID: 31703914 DOI: 10.1016/j.cellimm.2019.103996] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2019] [Revised: 10/20/2019] [Accepted: 10/24/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Sex hormones are best known for their influences on reproduction, but they also have profound influences on the immune response. Examples of sex-specific differences include: (i) the relatively poor control of influenza virus infections in males compared to females, (ii) allergic asthma, an IgE-associated hypersensitivity reaction that is exacerbated in adolescent females compared to males, and (iii) systemic lupus erythematosus, a life-threatening autoimmune disease with a 9:1 female:male bias. Here we consider how estrogen and estrogen receptor α (ERα) may influence the immune response by modifying class switch recombination (CSR) and immunoglobulin expression patterns. We focus on ERα binding to enhancers (Eμ and the 3' regulatory region) and switch sites (Sµ and Sε) in the immunoglobulin heavy chain locus. Our preliminary data from ChIP-seq analyses of purified, activated B cells show estrogen-mediated changes in the positioning of ERα binding within and near Sµ and Sε. In the presence of estrogen, ERα is bound not only to estrogen response elements (ERE), but also to adenosine-cytidine (AC)-repeats and poly adenosine (poly A) sequences, in some cases within constant region gene introns. We propose that by binding these sites, estrogen and ERα directly participate in the DNA loop formation required for CSR. We further suggest that estrogen regulates immunoglobulin expression patterns and can thereby influence life-and-death outcomes of infection, hypersensitivity, and autoimmune disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bart G Jones
- Department of Infectious Diseases, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN 38105, USA
| | - Rhiannon R Penkert
- Department of Infectious Diseases, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN 38105, USA
| | - Sherri L Surman
- Department of Infectious Diseases, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN 38105, USA
| | - Robert E Sealy
- Department of Infectious Diseases, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN 38105, USA
| | - Stephane Pelletier
- Department of Immunology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN 38105, USA
| | - Beisi Xu
- Department of Computational Biology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN 38105, USA
| | - Geoff Neale
- Hartwell Center for Bioinformatics & Biotechnology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN 38105, USA
| | - Robert W Maul
- National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
| | - Patricia J Gearhart
- National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
| | - J L Hurwitz
- Department of Infectious Diseases, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN 38105, USA; Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Biochemistry, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN 38163, USA.
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