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Wu M, Wille H, Stepanova M. Essential collective dynamics analysis reveals nonlocal interactions of alpha-synuclein 38-95 monomers with fibrillar seeds. J Chem Phys 2022; 157:235101. [PMID: 36550041 DOI: 10.1063/5.0116032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Alpha-synuclein (α-syn) is a cytoplasmic protein commonly found in the nervous system. In solution, α-syn adopts disordered unfolded conformations, although it can also form α-helices upon binding to lipid membranes. Under conditions that are not yet fully understood, α-syn can misfold and aggregate, giving rise to β-sheet rich amyloid fibrils, which then tend to accumulate in degenerating neurons. This leads to Parkinson's disease (PD) and several other conditions collectively termed synucleinopathies. Development of disease-modifying treatments requires detailed understanding of structure and dynamics of α-syn's misfolded aggregates. We have employed 1000 ns long, all-atom molecular dynamics simulations to investigate the interaction of monomeric α-syn38-95 fragments, which contain the most important amyloidogenic regions, with preformed fibrillar seeds composed of staggered, β-sheet rich α-syn chains of matching length. The simulations indicate that α-syn38-95 monomers tend to form aggregates with the fibrillar seeds, although we have not observed alignment of the monomeric chains with β-strands of the fibril. To analyze the stability of these aggregates, we have employed the essential collective dynamics method, which allows making accurate assessment of dynamical coupling across individual atoms in macromolecules and supramolecular complexes. The analysis revealed extensive dynamical coupling across initially monomeric α-syn chains and the fibrillar seeds including distal regions thereof that did not contact the monomer directly. We have discussed structural origins of these long-range interactions, their impacts for the stability of α-syn aggregates, and potential implications for the development of anti-PD treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Min Wu
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2E1, Canada
| | - Holger Wille
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2H7, Canada
| | - Maria Stepanova
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2E1, Canada
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Lysophospholipids: A Potential Drug Candidates for Neurodegenerative Disorders. Biomedicines 2022; 10:biomedicines10123126. [PMID: 36551882 PMCID: PMC9775253 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines10123126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2022] [Revised: 11/30/2022] [Accepted: 12/01/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Neurodegenerative diseases (NDs) commonly present misfolded and aggregated proteins. Considerable research has been performed to unearth the molecular processes underpinning this pathological aggregation and develop therapeutic strategies targeting NDs. Fibrillary deposits of α-synuclein (α-Syn), a highly conserved and thermostable protein, are a critical feature in the development of NDs such as Alzheimer's disease (AD), Lewy body disease (LBD), Parkinson's disease (PD), and multiple system atrophy (MSA). Inhibition of α-Syn aggregation can thus serve as a potential approach for therapeutic intervention. Recently, the degradation of target proteins by small molecules has emerged as a new therapeutic modality, gaining the hotspot in pharmaceutical research. Additionally, interest is growing in the use of food-derived bioactive compounds as intervention agents against NDs via functional foods and dietary supplements. According to reports, dietary bioactive phospholipids may have cognition-enhancing and neuroprotective effects, owing to their abilities to influence cognition and mental health in vivo and in vitro. However, the mechanisms by which lipids may prevent the pathological aggregation of α-Syn warrant further clarification. Here, we review evidence for the potential mechanisms underlying this effect, with a particular focus on how porcine liver decomposition product (PLDP)-derived lysophospholipids (LPLs) may inhibit α-Syn aggregation.
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Rahman A, Saikia B, Gogoi CR, Baruah A. Advances in the understanding of protein misfolding and aggregation through molecular dynamics simulation. PROGRESS IN BIOPHYSICS AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2022; 175:31-48. [PMID: 36044970 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbiomolbio.2022.08.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2022] [Revised: 08/19/2022] [Accepted: 08/23/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Aberrant protein folding known as protein misfolding is counted as one of the striking factors of neurodegenerative diseases. The extensive range of pathologies caused by protein misfolding, aggregation and subsequent accumulation are mainly classified into either gain of function diseases or loss of function diseases. In order to seek for novel strategies for treatment and diagnosis of neurodegenerative diseases, insights into the mechanism of misfolding and aggregation is essential. A comprehensive knowledge on the factors influencing misfolding and aggregation is required as well. An extensive experimental study on protein aggregation is somewhat challenging due to the insoluble and noncrystalline nature of amyloid fibrils. Thus there has been a growing use of computational approaches including Monte Carlo simulation, docking simulation, molecular dynamics simulation in the study of protein misfolding and aggregation. The review presents a discussion on molecular dynamics simulation alone as to how it has emerged as a promising tool in the understanding of protein misfolding and aggregation in general, detailing upon three different aspects considering four misfold prone proteins in particular. It is noticeable that all four proteins considered in this review i.e prion, superoxide dismutase1, huntingtin and amyloid β are linked to chronic neurodegenerative diseases with debilitating effects. Initially the review elaborates on the factors influencing the misfolding and aggregation. Next, it addresses our current understanding of the amyloid structures and the associated aggregation mechanisms, finally, summarizing the contribution of this computational tool in the search for therapeutic strategies against the respective protein-deposition diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aziza Rahman
- Department of Chemistry, Dibrugarh University, Dibrugarh, 786004, Assam, India
| | - Bondeepa Saikia
- Department of Chemistry, Dibrugarh University, Dibrugarh, 786004, Assam, India
| | - Chimi Rekha Gogoi
- Department of Chemistry, Dibrugarh University, Dibrugarh, 786004, Assam, India
| | - Anupaul Baruah
- Department of Chemistry, Dibrugarh University, Dibrugarh, 786004, Assam, India.
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Watanabe-Nakayama T, Ono K. Single-molecule Observation of Self-Propagating Amyloid Fibrils. Microscopy (Oxf) 2022; 71:133-141. [DOI: 10.1093/jmicro/dfac011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2021] [Revised: 03/02/2022] [Accepted: 03/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
The assembly of misfolded proteins into amyloid fibrils is associated with amyloidosis, including neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s, and prion diseases. The self-propagation of amyloid fibrils is widely observed in the aggregation pathways of numerous amyloidogenic proteins. This propensity with plasticity in primary nucleation allows amyloid fibril polymorphism, which is correlated with the pathology/phenotypes of patients. Because the interference with the nucleation and replication processes of amyloid fibrils can alter the amyloid structure and the outcome of the disease, these processes can be a target for developing clinical drugs. Single-molecule observation of amyloid fibril replication can be an experimental system to provide the kinetic parameters for simulation studies and confirm the effect of clinical drugs. Here, we review single-molecule observation of the amyloid fibril replication process using fluorescence microscopy and time-lapse atomic force microscopy, including high-speed atomic force microscopy. We discussed the amyloid fibril replication process and combined single-molecule observation results with molecular dynamics simulations.
Mini Abstract Structural dynamics in amyloid aggregation is related with various Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s disease symptoms. Single-molecule observation using high-speed atomic force microscopy can directly visualize the structural dynamics of individual amyloid aggregate assemblies. Here, we review historical and recent studies of single-molecule observation of amyloid aggregation with supportive molecular dynamics simulation.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Kenjiro Ono
- Department of Neurology and Neurobiology of Aging, Kanazawa University Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kanazawa University, 13-1, Takara-machi, Kanazawa 920-8640, Japan
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Nguyen PH, Tufféry P, Derreumaux P. Dynamics of Amyloid Formation from Simplified Representation to Atomistic Simulations. Methods Mol Biol 2022; 2405:95-113. [PMID: 35298810 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-1855-4_5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Amyloid fibril formation is an intrinsic property of short peptides, non-disease proteins, and proteins associated with neurodegenerative diseases. Aggregates of the Aβ and tau proteins, the α-synuclein protein, and the prion protein are observed in the brain of Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, and prion disease patients, respectively. Due to the transient short-range and long-range interactions of all species and their high aggregation propensities, the conformational ensemble of these devastating proteins, the exception being for the monomeric prion protein, remains elusive by standard structural biology methods in bulk solution and in lipid membranes. To overcome these limitations, an increasing number of simulations using different sampling methods and protein models have been performed. In this chapter, we first review our main contributions to the field of amyloid protein simulations aimed at understanding the early aggregation steps of short linear amyloid peptides, the conformational ensemble of the Aβ40/42 dimers in bulk solution, and the stability of Aβ aggregates in lipid membrane models. Then we focus on our studies on the interactions of amyloid peptides/inhibitors to prevent aggregation, and long amyloid sequences, including new results on a monomeric tau construct.
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Affiliation(s)
- Phuong Hoang Nguyen
- Laboratoire de Biochimie Théorique, CNRS, Université de Paris, UPR 9080, Paris, France
- Institut de Biologie Physico-Chimique, Fondation Edmond de Rothschild, PSL Research University, Paris, France
| | - Pierre Tufféry
- Université de Paris, BFA, UMR 8251, CNRS, ERL U1133, Inserm, RPBS, Paris, France
| | - Philippe Derreumaux
- Laboratoire de Biochimie Théorique, CNRS, Université de Paris, UPR 9080, Paris, France.
- Institut de Biologie Physico-Chimique, Fondation Edmond de Rothschild, PSL Research University, Paris, France.
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Peng W, Wang T, Liang XR, Yang YS, Wang QZ, Cheng HF, Peng YK, Ding F. Characterizing the potentially neuronal acetylcholinesterase reactivity toward chiral pyraclofos: Enantioselective insights from spectroscopy, in silico docking, molecular dynamics simulation and per-residue energy decomposition studies. J Mol Graph Model 2021; 110:108069. [PMID: 34773872 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmgm.2021.108069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2021] [Revised: 10/27/2021] [Accepted: 10/28/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Chiral organophosphorus agents are distributed ubiquitously in the environment, but the neuroactivity of these asymmetric chemicals to humans remains uncertain. This scenario was to explore the stereoselective neurobiological response of human acetylcholinesterase (AChE) to chiral pyraclofos at the enantiomeric scale, and then decipher the microscopic basis of enantioselective neurotoxicity of pyraclofos enantiomers. The results indicated that (R)-/(S)-pyraclofos can form the bioconjugates with AChE with a stoichiometric ratio of 1:1, but the neuronal affinity of (R)-pyraclofos (K = 6.31 × 104 M-1) with AChE was larger than that of (S)-pyraclofos (K = 1.86 × 104 M-1), and significant enantioselectivity was existed in the biochemical reaction. The modes of neurobiological action revealed that pyraclofos enantiomers were situated at the substrate binding domain, and the strength of the overall noncovalent bonds between (S)-pyraclofos and the residues was weaker than that of (R)-pyraclofos, resulting in the high inhibitory effect of (R)-pyraclofos toward the activity of AChE. Dynamic enantioselective biointeractions illustrated that the intervention of inherent conformational flexibility in the AChE-(R)-pyraclofos was greater than that of the AChE-(S)-pyraclofos, which arises from the big spatial displacement and the conformational flip of the binding domain composed of the residues Thr-64~Asn-89, Gly-122~Asp-134, and Thr-436~Tyr-449. Energy decomposition exhibited that the Gibbs free energies of the AChE-(R)-/(S)-pyraclofos were ΔG° = -37.4/-30.2 kJ mol-1, respectively, and the disparity comes from the electrostatic energy during the stereoselective neurochemical reactions. Quantitative conformational analysis further confirmed the atomic-scale computational chemistry conclusions, and the perturbation of (S)-pyraclofos on the AChE's ordered conformation was lower than that of (R)-pyraclofos, which is germane to the interaction energies of the crucial residues, e.g. Tyr-124, Tyr-337, Asp-74, Trp-86, and Tyr-119. Evidently, this attempt will contribute mechanistic information to uncovering the neurobiological effects of chiral organophosphates on the body.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Peng
- School of Water and Environment, Chang'an University, Xi'an, 710054, China; Key Laboratory of Subsurface Hydrology and Ecological Effect in Arid Region of Ministry of Education, Chang'an University, Xi'an, 710054, China; State Key Laboratory of Physical Chemistry of Solid Surfaces and Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Theoretical and Computational Chemistry, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361005, China
| | - Tao Wang
- School of Water and Environment, Chang'an University, Xi'an, 710054, China; Key Laboratory of Subsurface Hydrology and Ecological Effect in Arid Region of Ministry of Education, Chang'an University, Xi'an, 710054, China
| | - Xiang-Rong Liang
- School of Water and Environment, Chang'an University, Xi'an, 710054, China
| | - Yu-Sen Yang
- School of Water and Environment, Chang'an University, Xi'an, 710054, China
| | - Qi-Zhao Wang
- School of Water and Environment, Chang'an University, Xi'an, 710054, China; Key Laboratory of Subsurface Hydrology and Ecological Effect in Arid Region of Ministry of Education, Chang'an University, Xi'an, 710054, China
| | - Hong-Fei Cheng
- School of Earth Science and Resources, Chang'an University, Xi'an, 710054, China
| | - Yu-Kui Peng
- Xining Center for Agricultural Product Quality and Safety Testing, Xining, 810016, China
| | - Fei Ding
- School of Water and Environment, Chang'an University, Xi'an, 710054, China; Key Laboratory of Subsurface Hydrology and Ecological Effect in Arid Region of Ministry of Education, Chang'an University, Xi'an, 710054, China; Department of Agricultural Chemistry, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao, 266109, China.
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Hypervariability of accessible and inaccessible conformational space of proteins. Curr Res Struct Biol 2021; 3:229-238. [PMID: 34604793 PMCID: PMC8473459 DOI: 10.1016/j.crstbi.2021.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2021] [Revised: 09/10/2021] [Accepted: 09/11/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Proteins undergo motions in a range of amplitudes, from domain motions to backbone rotations, leading to changes in (φ,ψ) torsion angles and small-scale bond vibrations and angle bending. Here, we study the extent of variations in (φ,ψ) values in proteins and the effects of bond geometry variations due to vibrational motions in a protein on the accessible, (steric clash-free) (φ,ψ) space. We perform 1-fs timestep unconstrained molecular dynamics simulations on super-high-resolution protein structures. Extent of variations in bond geometry during the simulation is within acceptable ranges of bond lengths and angles. However, the steric clash-free (φ,ψ) space continuously changes as seen in bond geometry-specific (φ,ψ) steric maps at the residue level during simulations. (φ,ψ) regions that have steric clash at one timepoint can become steric clash-free at a different timepoint through minor adjustments to backbone bond lengths and angles. Also instances of (φ,ψ) transitions from the left to right half of the (φ,ψ) map in consecutive snapshots of the trajectory are seen. Although the two quadrants are separated by a steric clash-prone region, corresponding to a high-energy barrier, height of this barrier is lowered by adjusting the bond geometry such that a bridging region of steric clash-free, low-energy (φ,ψ) values is formed. We demonstrate the idea of dynamically varying nature of acceptable and accessible (φ,ψ) steric space in proteins, which has implications for protein folding; proteins could sample (φ,ψ) space which is originally considered to be inaccessible, during folding, through minor adjustments to their backbone bond geometry.
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Wu X, Wen B, Lin L, Shi W, Li D, Cheng Y, Xu LY, Li EM, Dong G. New insights into the function of Fascin in actin bundling: A combined theoretical and experimental study. Int J Biochem Cell Biol 2021; 139:106056. [PMID: 34390855 DOI: 10.1016/j.biocel.2021.106056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2021] [Revised: 08/04/2021] [Accepted: 08/07/2021] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Fascin, one of actin bundling proteins, plays an important role in the cross-linking of actin filaments (F-actin). Phosphorylation of Fascin is an important posttranslational modification to affect its structure and function. For example, a phosphomimetic mutation of Fascin-S39D decrease its bundling ability with F-actin significantly. In this paper, we studied the actin-bundling activity of Fascin by using molecular dynamics (MD) simulations and biochemical methods. All single-site mutations from serine/threonine to aspartic acid were mimicked by MD simulations. For five mutants (S146D, S156D, S218D, T239D and S259D), the mutated residues in domain 2 of Fascin were found to form salt-bridge interactions with an adjacent residue, indicating that mutations of these residues could potentially reduce actin-bundling activity. Further, F-actin-bundling assays and immunofluorescence technique showed S146D and T239D to have a strong effect on Fascin bundling with F-actin. Finally, we show that single-site mutations do not change the general shape of Fascin, but local structures near the mutated residues in Fascin-S146D and T239D become unstable, thereby affecting the ability of Fascin to bind with F-actin. These findings suggest that targeting domain 2 of Fascin would be very useful for the drug design. In addition, our study indicates that MD simulation is a useful method to screening which residues on Fascin are important.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaodong Wu
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, 515041, PR China
| | - Bing Wen
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, 515041, PR China
| | - Lirui Lin
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, 515041, PR China; Medical Informatics Research Center, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, 515041, PR China
| | - Wenqi Shi
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology in High Cancer Incidence Coastal Area of Guangdong Higher Education Institutes, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, 515041, PR China; Cancer Research Center, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, 515041, PR China
| | - Dajia Li
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology in High Cancer Incidence Coastal Area of Guangdong Higher Education Institutes, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, 515041, PR China; Cancer Research Center, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, 515041, PR China
| | - Yinwei Cheng
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology in High Cancer Incidence Coastal Area of Guangdong Higher Education Institutes, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, 515041, PR China; Cancer Research Center, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, 515041, PR China
| | - Li-Yan Xu
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology in High Cancer Incidence Coastal Area of Guangdong Higher Education Institutes, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, 515041, PR China; Cancer Research Center, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, 515041, PR China.
| | - En-Min Li
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, 515041, PR China; Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology in High Cancer Incidence Coastal Area of Guangdong Higher Education Institutes, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, 515041, PR China.
| | - Geng Dong
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, 515041, PR China; Medical Informatics Research Center, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, 515041, PR China.
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Wu M, Dorosh L, Schmitt-Ulms G, Wille H, Stepanova M. Aggregation of Aβ40/42 chains in the presence of cyclic neuropeptides investigated by molecular dynamics simulations. PLoS Comput Biol 2021; 17:e1008771. [PMID: 33711010 PMCID: PMC7990313 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1008771] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2020] [Revised: 03/24/2021] [Accepted: 02/04/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer’s disease is associated with the formation of toxic aggregates of amyloid beta (Aβ) peptides. Despite tremendous efforts, our understanding of the molecular mechanisms of aggregation, as well as cofactors that might influence it, remains incomplete. The small cyclic neuropeptide somatostatin-14 (SST14) was recently found to be the most selectively enriched protein in human frontal lobe extracts that binds Aβ42 aggregates. Furthermore, SST14’s presence was also found to promote the formation of toxic Aβ42 oligomers in vitro. In order to elucidate how SST14 influences the onset of Aβ oligomerization, we performed all-atom molecular dynamics simulations of model mixtures of Aβ42 or Aβ40 peptides with SST14 molecules and analyzed the structure and dynamics of early-stage aggregates. For comparison we also analyzed the aggregation of Aβ42 in the presence of arginine vasopressin (AVP), a different cyclic neuropeptide. We observed the formation of self-assembled aggregates containing the Aβ chains and small cyclic peptides in all mixtures of Aβ42–SST14, Aβ42–AVP, and Aβ40–SST14. The Aβ42–SST14 mixtures were found to develop compact, dynamically stable, but small aggregates with the highest exposure of hydrophobic residues to the solvent. Differences in the morphology and dynamics of aggregates that comprise SST14 or AVP appear to reflect distinct (1) regions of the Aβ chains they interact with; (2) propensities to engage in hydrogen bonds with Aβ peptides; and (3) solvent exposures of hydrophilic and hydrophobic groups. The presence of SST14 was found to impede aggregation in the Aβ42–SST14 system despite a high hydrophobicity, producing a stronger “sticky surface” effect in the aggregates at the onset of Aβ42–SST14 oligomerization. Improper folding of proteins causes disorders known as protein misfolding diseases. Under normal conditions most proteins adopt particular folds, which allow them functioning properly. However, for reasons that are not yet fully understood, proteins may misfold and aggregate, forming deposits known as amyloid fibrils, which accumulate in the brain or other tissues. This process affects functioning of the nervous system, gradually causing loss of cognitive abilities. Alzheimer’s disease is one of the most common diseases from this group. A better understanding of the aggregation of peptides implicated in Alzheimer’s disease, known as amyloid beta (Aβ) peptides, may facilitate the development of treatments that ameliorate or prevent the disease. We use detailed molecular dynamics simulations to investigate the influence of somatostatin-14 (SST14), a cyclic neuropeptide that might be involved in the amyloidogenic aggregation of Aβ, on molecular processes occurring at the onset of Aβ aggregation. Results of these simulations explain how the presence of SST14 might alter pathways of aggregation of Aβ, shedding light upon the possible role of extrinsic factors in the aggregation at a molecular level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Min Wu
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada
| | - Lyudmyla Dorosh
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada
| | - Gerold Schmitt-Ulms
- Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
| | - Holger Wille
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada
- Centre for Prions and Protein Folding Diseases, Edmonton, Canada
- Neuroscience and Mental Health Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada
| | - Maria Stepanova
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada
- * E-mail:
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