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Wills S, Sanchez-Garcia R, Dudgeon T, Roughley SD, Merritt A, Hubbard RE, Davidson J, von Delft F, Deane CM. Fragment Merging Using a Graph Database Samples Different Catalogue Space than Similarity Search. J Chem Inf Model 2023. [PMID: 37229647 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jcim.3c00276] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Fragment merging is a promising approach to progressing fragments directly to on-scale potency: each designed compound incorporates the structural motifs of overlapping fragments in a way that ensures compounds recapitulate multiple high-quality interactions. Searching commercial catalogues provides one useful way to quickly and cheaply identify such merges and circumvents the challenge of synthetic accessibility, provided they can be readily identified. Here, we demonstrate that the Fragment Network, a graph database that provides a novel way to explore the chemical space surrounding fragment hits, is well-suited to this challenge. We use an iteration of the database containing >120 million catalogue compounds to find fragment merges for four crystallographic screening campaigns and contrast the results with a traditional fingerprint-based similarity search. The two approaches identify complementary sets of merges that recapitulate the observed fragment-protein interactions but lie in different regions of chemical space. We further show our methodology is an effective route to achieving on-scale potency by retrospective analyses for two different targets; in analyses of public COVID Moonshot and Mycobacterium tuberculosis EthR inhibitors, potential inhibitors with micromolar IC50 values were identified. This work demonstrates the use of the Fragment Network to increase the yield of fragment merges beyond that of a classical catalogue search.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie Wills
- Department of Statistics, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3LB, United Kingdom
- Centre for Medicines Discovery, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7DQ, United Kingdom
| | - Ruben Sanchez-Garcia
- Department of Statistics, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3LB, United Kingdom
- Centre for Medicines Discovery, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7DQ, United Kingdom
| | - Tim Dudgeon
- Informatics Matters, Ltd., Perch Coworking, Franklins House, Bicester OX26 6JU, United Kingdom
| | - Stephen D Roughley
- Vernalis (R&D) Limited, Granta Park, Great Abington, Cambridge CB21 6GB, United Kingdom
| | - Andy Merritt
- LifeArc, Lynton House, 7-12 Tavistock Square, London WC1H 9LT, United Kingdom
| | - Roderick E Hubbard
- Vernalis (R&D) Limited, Granta Park, Great Abington, Cambridge CB21 6GB, United Kingdom
| | - James Davidson
- Vernalis (R&D) Limited, Granta Park, Great Abington, Cambridge CB21 6GB, United Kingdom
| | - Frank von Delft
- Centre for Medicines Discovery, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7DQ, United Kingdom
- Diamond Light Source, Didcot OX11 0DE, United Kingdom
- Research Complex at Harwell, Harwell Science and Innovation Campus, Didcot OX11 0FA, United Kingdom
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Johannesburg, Auckland Park, Johannesburg 2006, South Africa
| | - Charlotte M Deane
- Department of Statistics, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3LB, United Kingdom
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2
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Abstract
Although fragment-based drug discovery (FBDD) has been successfully implemented and well-explored for protein targets, its feasibility for RNA targets is emerging. Despite the challenges associated with the selective targeting of RNA, efforts to integrate known methods of RNA binder discovery with fragment-based approaches have been fruitful, as a few bioactive ligands have been identified. Here, we review various fragment-based approaches implemented for RNA targets and provide insights into experimental design and outcomes to guide future work in the area. Indeed, investigations surrounding the molecular recognition of RNA by fragments address rather important questions such as the limits of molecular weight that confer selective binding and the physicochemical properties favorable for RNA binding and bioactivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Blessy M. Suresh
- UF Scripps Biomedical Research & The Scripps Research Institute, Department of Chemistry, 130 Scripps Way, Jupiter, Florida 33458, United States
| | - Amirhossein Taghavi
- UF Scripps Biomedical Research & The Scripps Research Institute, Department of Chemistry, 130 Scripps Way, Jupiter, Florida 33458, United States
| | - Jessica L. Childs-Disney
- UF Scripps Biomedical Research & The Scripps Research Institute, Department of Chemistry, 130 Scripps Way, Jupiter, Florida 33458, United States
| | - Matthew D. Disney
- UF Scripps Biomedical Research & The Scripps Research Institute, Department of Chemistry, 130 Scripps Way, Jupiter, Florida 33458, United States
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3
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Forces Driving a Magic Bullet to Its Target: Revisiting the Role of Thermodynamics in Drug Design, Development, and Optimization. Life (Basel) 2022; 12:life12091438. [PMID: 36143474 PMCID: PMC9504344 DOI: 10.3390/life12091438] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2022] [Revised: 09/02/2022] [Accepted: 09/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Drug discovery strategies have advanced significantly towards prioritizing target selectivity to achieve the longstanding goal of identifying “magic bullets” amongst thousands of chemical molecules screened for therapeutic efficacy. A myriad of emerging and existing health threats, including the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic, alarming increase in bacterial resistance, and potentially fatal chronic ailments, such as cancer, cardiovascular disease, and neurodegeneration, have incentivized the discovery of novel therapeutics in treatment regimens. The design, development, and optimization of lead compounds represent an arduous and time-consuming process that necessitates the assessment of specific criteria and metrics derived via multidisciplinary approaches incorporating functional, structural, and energetic properties. The present review focuses on specific methodologies and technologies aimed at advancing drug development with particular emphasis on the role of thermodynamics in elucidating the underlying forces governing ligand–target interaction selectivity and specificity. In the pursuit of novel therapeutics, isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC) has been utilized extensively over the past two decades to bolster drug discovery efforts, yielding information-rich thermodynamic binding signatures. A wealth of studies recognizes the need for mining thermodynamic databases to critically examine and evaluate prospective drug candidates on the basis of available metrics. The ultimate power and utility of thermodynamics within drug discovery strategies reside in the characterization and comparison of intrinsic binding signatures that facilitate the elucidation of structural–energetic correlations which assist in lead compound identification and optimization to improve overall therapeutic efficacy.
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Toti D, Macari G, Barbierato E, Polticelli F. FGDB: a comprehensive graph database of ligand fragments from the Protein Data Bank. Database (Oxford) 2022; 2022:6619197. [PMID: 35763362 PMCID: PMC9239314 DOI: 10.1093/database/baac044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2022] [Revised: 05/06/2022] [Accepted: 05/31/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
This work presents Fragment Graph DataBase (FGDB), a graph database of ligand fragments extracted and generated from the protein entries available in the Protein Data Bank (PDB). FGDB is meant to support and elicit campaigns of fragment-based drug design, by enabling users to query it in order to construct ad hoc, target-specific libraries. In this regard, the database features more than 17 000 fragments, typically small, highly soluble and chemically stable molecules expressed via their canonical Simplified Molecular Input Line Entry System (SMILES) representation. For these fragments, the database provides information related to their contact frequencies with the amino acids, the ligands they are contained in and the proteins the latter bind to. The graph database can be queried via standard web forms and textual searches by a number of identifiers (SMILES, ligand and protein PDB ids) as well as via graphical queries that can be performed against the graph itself, providing users with an intuitive and effective view upon the underlying biological entities. Further search mechanisms via advanced conjunctive/disjunctive/negated textual queries are also possible, in order to allow scientists to look for specific relationships and export their results for further studies. This work also presents two sample use cases where maternal embryonic leucine zipper kinase and mesotrypsin are used as a target, being proteins of high biomedical relevance for the development of cancer therapies. Database URL: http://biochimica3.bio.uniroma3.it/fragments-web/
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniele Toti
- Department of Mathematics and Physics, Catholic University of the Sacred Heart, Faculty of Mathematical, Physical and Natural Sciences , via della Garzetta 48, Brescia 25133, Italy
| | - Gabriele Macari
- Department of Sciences, Roma Tre University , viale Marconi 446, Roma, Lazio 00146, Italy
| | - Enrico Barbierato
- Department of Mathematics and Physics, Catholic University of the Sacred Heart, Faculty of Mathematical, Physical and Natural Sciences , via della Garzetta 48, Brescia 25133, Italy
| | - Fabio Polticelli
- Department of Sciences, Roma Tre University , viale Marconi 446, Roma, Lazio 00146, Italy
- Roma Tre Section, National Institute of Nuclear Physics , via della Vasca Navale 84, Roma 00146, Italy
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5
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Synthesis of oleanolic acid hydrazide-hydrazone hybrid derivatives and investigation of their cytotoxic effects on A549 human lung cancer cells. RESULTS IN CHEMISTRY 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.rechem.2022.100317] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
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6
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Fragment Screening by NMR. Methods Mol Biol 2021. [PMID: 33877602 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-1197-5_11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2023]
Abstract
This chapter describes the use of NMR to screen a fragment library as part of a fragment-based lead discovery (FBLD) campaign. The emphasis is on the practicalities involved in fragment screening by NMR, with particular attention to the use of 1D ligand-observed 1H NMR experiments. An overview of the theoretical considerations underlying the choice of method and experimental configuration is given, along with a discussion of steps that can be taken in order to minimize the risk of experimental artifacts often associated with the identification of low-affinity interactions.
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7
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Brancaccio D, Di Maro S, Cerofolini L, Giuntini S, Fragai M, Luchinat C, Tomassi S, Limatola A, Russomanno P, Merlino F, Novellino E, Carotenuto A. HOPPI-NMR: Hot-Peptide-Based Screening Assay for Inhibitors of Protein-Protein Interactions by NMR. ACS Med Chem Lett 2020; 11:1047-1053. [PMID: 32435424 DOI: 10.1021/acsmedchemlett.9b00620] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2019] [Accepted: 02/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Protein-protein interactions (PPIs) contribute to the onset and/or progression of several diseases, especially cancer, and this discovery has paved the way for considering disruption of the PPIs as an attractive anti-tumor strategy. In this regard, simple and efficient biophysical methods for detecting the interaction of the inhibitors with the protein counterpart are still in high demand. Herein, we describe a convenient NMR method for the screening of putative PPI inhibitors based on the use of "hot peptides" (HOPPI-NMR). As a case study, HOPPI-NMR was successful applied to the well-known p53/MDM2 system. Our outcomes highlight the main advantages of the method, including the use of a small amount of unlabeled proteins, the minimization of the risk of protein aggregation, and the ability to identify weak binders. The last leaves open the possibility for application of HOPPI-NMR in tandem with fragment-based drug discovery as a valid strategy for the identification of novel chemotypes acting as PPI inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diego Brancaccio
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Naples “Federico II”, 80131 Naples, Italy
| | - Salvatore Di Maro
- DISTABIF, University of Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli”, 81100 Caserta, Italy
| | | | | | - Marco Fragai
- CERM, University of Florence, 50019 Sesto Fiorentino, Italy
| | | | - Stefano Tomassi
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Naples “Federico II”, 80131 Naples, Italy
| | - Antonio Limatola
- Department of Biology, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305-5430, United States
| | - Pasquale Russomanno
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Naples “Federico II”, 80131 Naples, Italy
| | - Francesco Merlino
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Naples “Federico II”, 80131 Naples, Italy
| | - Ettore Novellino
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Naples “Federico II”, 80131 Naples, Italy
| | - Alfonso Carotenuto
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Naples “Federico II”, 80131 Naples, Italy
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8
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Haffner CD, Charnley AK, Aquino CJ, Casillas L, Convery MA, Cox JA, Elban MA, Goodwin NC, Gough PJ, Haile PA, Hughes TV, Knapp-Reed B, Kreatsoulas C, Lakdawala AS, Li H, Lian Y, Lipshutz D, Mehlmann JF, Ouellette M, Romano J, Shewchuk L, Shu A, Votta BJ, Zhou H, Bertin J, Marquis RW. Discovery of Pyrazolocarboxamides as Potent and Selective Receptor Interacting Protein 2 (RIP2) Kinase Inhibitors. ACS Med Chem Lett 2019; 10:1518-1523. [PMID: 31749904 DOI: 10.1021/acsmedchemlett.9b00141] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2019] [Accepted: 09/26/2019] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Herein we report the discovery of pyrazolocarboxamides as novel, potent, and kinase selective inhibitors of receptor interacting protein 2 kinase (RIP2). Fragment based screening and design principles led to the identification of the inhibitor series, and X-ray crystallography was used to inform key structural changes. Through key substitutions about the N1 and C5 N positions on the pyrazole ring significant kinase selectivity and potency were achieved. Bridged bicyclic pyrazolocarboxamide 11 represents a selective and potent inhibitor of RIP2 and will allow for a more detailed investigation of RIP2 inhibition as a therapeutic target for autoinflammatory disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Curt D. Haffner
- GlaxoSmithKline, 1250 South Collegeville Road, Collegeville, Pennsylvania 19426, United States
| | - Adam K. Charnley
- GlaxoSmithKline, 1250 South Collegeville Road, Collegeville, Pennsylvania 19426, United States
| | | | - Linda Casillas
- GlaxoSmithKline, 1250 South Collegeville Road, Collegeville, Pennsylvania 19426, United States
| | - Máire A. Convery
- GlaxoSmithKline, Medicines Research Centre, Gunnels Wood Road, Stevenage, SG1 2NY, U.K
| | - Julie A. Cox
- GlaxoSmithKline, 1250 South Collegeville Road, Collegeville, Pennsylvania 19426, United States
| | - Mark A. Elban
- GlaxoSmithKline, 1250 South Collegeville Road, Collegeville, Pennsylvania 19426, United States
| | - Nicole C. Goodwin
- GlaxoSmithKline, 1250 South Collegeville Road, Collegeville, Pennsylvania 19426, United States
| | - Peter J. Gough
- GlaxoSmithKline, 1250 South Collegeville Road, Collegeville, Pennsylvania 19426, United States
| | - Pamela A. Haile
- GlaxoSmithKline, 1250 South Collegeville Road, Collegeville, Pennsylvania 19426, United States
| | | | - Beth Knapp-Reed
- GlaxoSmithKline, 1250 South Collegeville Road, Collegeville, Pennsylvania 19426, United States
| | - Constantine Kreatsoulas
- GlaxoSmithKline, 1250 South Collegeville Road, Collegeville, Pennsylvania 19426, United States
| | - Ami S. Lakdawala
- GlaxoSmithKline, 1250 South Collegeville Road, Collegeville, Pennsylvania 19426, United States
| | - Huijie Li
- GlaxoSmithKline, 1250 South Collegeville Road, Collegeville, Pennsylvania 19426, United States
| | - Yiqian Lian
- GlaxoSmithKline, 1250 South Collegeville Road, Collegeville, Pennsylvania 19426, United States
| | - David Lipshutz
- GlaxoSmithKline, 1250 South Collegeville Road, Collegeville, Pennsylvania 19426, United States
| | - John F. Mehlmann
- GlaxoSmithKline, 1250 South Collegeville Road, Collegeville, Pennsylvania 19426, United States
| | - Michael Ouellette
- GlaxoSmithKline, 1250 South Collegeville Road, Collegeville, Pennsylvania 19426, United States
| | - Joseph Romano
- GlaxoSmithKline, 1250 South Collegeville Road, Collegeville, Pennsylvania 19426, United States
| | - Lisa Shewchuk
- GlaxoSmithKline, 1250 South Collegeville Road, Collegeville, Pennsylvania 19426, United States
| | - Arthur Shu
- GlaxoSmithKline, 1250 South Collegeville Road, Collegeville, Pennsylvania 19426, United States
| | - Bartholomew J. Votta
- GlaxoSmithKline, 1250 South Collegeville Road, Collegeville, Pennsylvania 19426, United States
| | - Huiqiang Zhou
- GlaxoSmithKline, 1250 South Collegeville Road, Collegeville, Pennsylvania 19426, United States
| | - John Bertin
- GlaxoSmithKline, 1250 South Collegeville Road, Collegeville, Pennsylvania 19426, United States
| | - Robert W. Marquis
- GlaxoSmithKline, 1250 South Collegeville Road, Collegeville, Pennsylvania 19426, United States
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9
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Kwofie SK, Broni E, Teye J, Quansah E, Issah I, Wilson MD, Miller WA, Tiburu EK, Bonney JHK. Pharmacoinformatics-based identification of potential bioactive compounds against Ebola virus protein VP24. Comput Biol Med 2019; 113:103414. [PMID: 31536833 DOI: 10.1016/j.compbiomed.2019.103414] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2019] [Revised: 08/23/2019] [Accepted: 08/24/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The impact of Ebola virus disease (EVD) is devastating with concomitant high fatalities. Currently, various drugs and vaccines are at different stages of development, corroborating the need to identify new therapeutic molecules. The VP24 protein of the Ebola virus (EBOV) plays a key role in the pathology and replication of the EVD. The VP24 protein interferes with the host immune response to viral infections and promotes nucleocapsid formation, thus making it a viable drug target. This study sought to identify putative lead compounds from the African flora with potential to inhibit the activity of the EBOV VP24 protein using pharmacoinformatics and molecular docking. METHODS An integrated library of 7675 natural products originating from Africa obtained from the AfroDB and NANPDB databases, as well as known inhibitors were screened against VP24 (PDB ID: 4M0Q) utilising AutoDock Vina after energy minimization using GROMACS. The top 19 compounds were physicochemically and pharmacologically profiled using ADMET Predictor™, SwissADME and DataWarrior. The mechanisms of binding between the molecules and EBOV VP24 were characterised using LigPlot+. The performance of the molecular docking was evaluated by generating a receiver operating characteristic (ROC) by screening known inhibitors and decoys against EBOV VP24. The prediction of activity spectra for substances (PASS) and machine learning-based Open Bayesian models were used to predict the anti-viral and anti-Ebola activity of the molecules, respectively. RESULTS Four natural products, namely, ZINC000095486070, ZINC000003594643, ZINC000095486008 and sarcophine were found to be potential EBOV VP24-inhibitiory molecules. The molecular docking results showed that ZINC000095486070 had high binding affinity of -9.7 kcal/mol with EBOV VP24, which was greater than those of the known VP24-inhibitors used as standards in the study including Ouabain, Nilotinib, Clomiphene, Torimefene, Miglustat and BCX4430. The area under the curve of the generated ROC for evaluating the performance of the molecular docking was 0.77, which was considered acceptable. The predicted promising molecules were also validated using induced-fit docking with the receptor using Schrödinger and molecular mechanics Poisson-Boltzmann surface area (MM-PBSA) calculations. The molecules had better binding mechanisms and were pharmacologically profiled to have plausible efficacies, negligible toxicity as well as suitable for designing anti-Ebola scaffolds. ZINC000095486008 and sarcophine (NANPDB135) were predicted to possess anti-viral activity, while ZINC000095486070 and ZINC000003594643 to be anti-Ebola compounds. CONCLUSION The identified compounds are potential inhibitors worthy of further development as EBOV biotherapeutic agents. The scaffolds of the compounds could also serve as building blocks for designing novel Ebola inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel K Kwofie
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, School of Engineering Sciences, College of Basic & Applied Sciences, University of Ghana, PMB LG 77, Legon, Accra, Ghana; West African Center for Cell Biology of Infectious Pathogens, Department of Biochemistry, Cell and Molecular Biology, College of Basic and Applied Sciences, University of Ghana, Accra, Ghana; Department of Medicine, Loyola University Medical Center, Maywood, IL, 60153, USA.
| | - Emmanuel Broni
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, School of Engineering Sciences, College of Basic & Applied Sciences, University of Ghana, PMB LG 77, Legon, Accra, Ghana
| | - Joshua Teye
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, School of Engineering Sciences, College of Basic & Applied Sciences, University of Ghana, PMB LG 77, Legon, Accra, Ghana
| | - Erasmus Quansah
- Department of Parasitology, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research (NMIMR), College of Health Sciences (CHS), University of Ghana, P.O. Box LG 581, Legon, Accra, Ghana
| | - Ibrahim Issah
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, School of Engineering Sciences, College of Basic & Applied Sciences, University of Ghana, PMB LG 77, Legon, Accra, Ghana
| | - Michael D Wilson
- Department of Medicine, Loyola University Medical Center, Maywood, IL, 60153, USA; Department of Parasitology, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research (NMIMR), College of Health Sciences (CHS), University of Ghana, P.O. Box LG 581, Legon, Accra, Ghana
| | - Whelton A Miller
- Department of Medicine, Loyola University Medical Center, Maywood, IL, 60153, USA; Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, School of Engineering and Applied Science, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Elvis K Tiburu
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, School of Engineering Sciences, College of Basic & Applied Sciences, University of Ghana, PMB LG 77, Legon, Accra, Ghana; West African Center for Cell Biology of Infectious Pathogens, Department of Biochemistry, Cell and Molecular Biology, College of Basic and Applied Sciences, University of Ghana, Accra, Ghana
| | - Joseph H K Bonney
- Department of Virology, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research (NMIMR), College of Health Sciences (CHS), University of Ghana, P.O. Box LG 581, Legon, Accra, Ghana
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10
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Abstract
Ligand efficiency is a widely used design parameter in drug discovery. It is calculated by scaling affinity by molecular size and has a nontrivial dependency on the concentration unit used to express affinity that stems from the inability of the logarithm function to take dimensioned arguments. Consequently, perception of efficiency varies with the choice of concentration unit and it is argued that the ligand efficiency metric is not physically meaningful nor should it be considered to be a metric. The dependence of ligand efficiency on the concentration unit can be eliminated by defining efficiency in terms of sensitivity of affinity to molecular size and this is illustrated with reference to fragment-to-lead optimizations. Group efficiency and fit quality are also examined in detail from a physicochemical perspective. The importance of examining relationships between affinity and molecular size directly is stressed throughout this study and an alternative to ligand efficiency for normalization of affinity with respect to molecular size is presented.![]()
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter W Kenny
- Berwick-on-Sea, North Coast Road, Blanchisseuse, Saint George, Trinidad and Tobago.
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