Tolfenamic Acid

Fenamates: Forgotten treasure for cancer treatment and prevention: Mechanisms of action, structural modification, and bright future

Fenamates as classical nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory agents are widely used for relieving pain. Preclinical studies and epidemiological data highlight their chemo-preventive and chemotherapeutic potential for cancer. However, comprehensive reviews of fenamates in cancer are limited. To accelerate the repurposing of fenamates, this review summarizes the results of fenamates alone or in combination with existing chemotherapeutic agents. This paper also explores targets of fenamates in cancer therapy, including COX, AKR family, AR, gap junction, FTO, TEAD, DHODH, TAS2R14, ion channels, and DNA. Besides, this paper discusses other mechanisms, such as regulating Wnt/β-catenin, TGF-β, p38 MAPK, and NF-κB pathway, and the regulation of the expressions of Sp, EGR-1, NAG-1, ATF-3, ErbB2, AR, as well as the modulation of the tumor immune microenvironment. Furthermore, this paper outlined the structural modifications of fenamates, highlighting their potential as promising leads for anticancer drugs.

Susceptibility of Staphylococcus aureus to Anti-Inflammatory Drugs with a Focus on the Combinatory Effect of Celecoxib with Oxacillin In Vitro

Musculoskeletal infections (MIs) are among the most difficult-to-treat staphylococcal diseases due to antibiotic resistance. This has encouraged the development of innovative strategies, such as combination therapy, to combat MI. The aim of this study was to investigate the in vitro antistaphylococcal activity of anti-inflammatory drugs and the combined antimicrobial effect of celecoxib and oxacillin. The minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) of 17 anti-inflammatory drugs against standard strains and clinical isolates of S. aureus, including methicillin-resistant strains (MRSAs), were determined using the broth microdilution method. The fractional inhibitory concentration indices (FICIs) were evaluated using checkerboard assays. Celecoxib produced the most potent antistaphylococcal effect against all tested strains (MICs ranging from 32 to 64 mg/L), followed by that of diacerein against MRSA3 and MRSA ATCC 33592 (MIC 64 mg/L). Several synergistic effects were observed against the tested S. aureus strains, including MRSA (FICI ranging from 0.087 to 0.471). The strongest synergistic interaction (FICI 0.087) was against MRSA ATCC 33592 at a celecoxib concentration of 2 mg/L, with a 19-fold oxacillin MIC reduction (from 512 to 26.888 mg/L). This is the first report on the combined antistaphylococcal effect of celecoxib and oxacillin. These findings suggest celecoxib and its combination with oxacillin as perspective agents for research focused on the development of novel therapies for MI caused by S. aureus. This study further indicates that celecoxib could resensitize certain MRSA strains, in some cases, to be susceptible to β-lactams (e.g., oxacillin) that were not previously tested. It is essential to mention that the in vitro concentrations of anti-inflammatory drugs are higher than those typically obtained in patients. Therefore, an alternative option for its administration could be the use of a drug delivery system for the controlled slow release from an implant at the infection site.

Determination of indoxyl sulfate by spectrofluorimetric method in human plasma through extraction with deep eutectic solvent

A rapid and efficient analytical method was established to quantify indoxyl sulfate (IS) in plasma through extraction technique with a deep eutectic solvent (DES) and spectrofluorimetric method. DES (choline chloride: urea) was mixed with plasma samples for the extraction of IS, followed by the addition of dipotassium hydrogen phosphate (K2HPO4) solution to form an aqueous two-phase system. The fluorescence intensity of IS which was first extracted to the DES-rich-phase and then back-extracted into the salt-rich-phase, was measured by spectrofluorimetric method. Some key factors such as pH, centrifugation speed and time, the volume ratio of DES/salt, and salt concentration were optimized. Under the optimized conditions, the suggested method had a dynamic range between 20 and 160 µg/mL with a coefficient of determination (R2) of 0.99. Precision (relative standard deviation) was less than 15% and accuracy (% relative recovery) was ± 15% at the nominal concentration level. In addition, results showed that IS levels in real samples were higher than 40 µg/mL which was compatible with reported IS levels in end-stage renal disease (ESRD) patients. Overall, all the results reflect the fact that the presented analytical method can potentially be used for the determination of IS in real plasma samples.

Design, Synthesis and Evaluation of Antioxidant and NSAID Derivatives with Antioxidant, Anti-Inflammatory and Plasma Lipid Lowering Effects

Amides containing methyl esters of γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA), L-proline and L-tyrosine, and esters containing 3-(pyridin-3-yl)propan-1-ol were synthesized by conjugation with 3,5-di-tert-butyl-4-hydroxybenzoic, an NSAID (tolfenamic acid), or 3-phenylacrylic (cinnamic, (E)-3-(3,4-dimethoxyphenyl)acrylic and caffeic) acids. The rationale for the conjugation of such moieties was based on the design of structures with two or more molecular characteristics. The novel compounds were tested for their antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and hypolipidemic properties. Several compounds were potent antioxidants, comparable to the well-known antioxidant, Trolox. In addition, the radical scavenging activity of compound 6 reached levels that were slightly better than that of Trolox. All the tested compounds demonstrated remarkable activity in the reduction in carrageenan-induced rat paw edema, up to 59% (compound 2, a dual antioxidant and anti-inflammatory molecule, with almost 2.5-times higher activity in this experiment than the parent NSAID). Additionally, the compounds caused a significant decrease in the plasma lipidemic indices in Triton-induced hyperlipidemic rats. Compound 2 decreased total cholesterol by 75.1% and compound 3 decreased triglycerides by 79.3% at 150 μmol/kg (i.p.). The hypocholesterolemic effect of the compounds was comparable to that of simvastatin, a well-known hypocholesterolemic drug. Additionally, all compounds lowered blood triglycerides. The synthesized compounds with multiple activities, as designed, may be useful as potential candidates for conditions involving inflammation, lipidemic deregulation and oxygen toxicity.

Analysis of Tolfenamic Acid using a Simple, Rapid, and Stability-indicating Validated HPLC Method

BACKGROUND

Tolfenamic acid (TA) belongs to the fenamates class of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. Insufficient information is available regarding the availability of a reliable and validated stability-indicating method for the assay of TA.

OBJECTIVE

A relatively simple, rapid, accurate, precise, economical, robust, and stabilityindicating RP-HPLC method has been developed to determine TA in pure and tablet dosage forms.

METHODS

The method was validated according to the ICH guideline, and parameters like linearity, range, selectivity, accuracy, precision, robustness, specificity, and solution stability were determined. TLC and FTIR spectrometry were used to ascertain the purity of TA. The specificity was determined with known impurities and after performing forced degradation, while the robustness was established by Plackett-Burman's experimental design. The mobile phase used for the analysis was acetonitrile and water (90:10, v/v) at pH 2.5. The detection of the active drug was made at 280 nm using a C18 column (tR = 4.3 min.). The method's applicability was also checked for the yellow polymorphic form of TA.

RESULTS

The results indicated that the method is highly accurate (99.39-100.80%), precise (<1.5% RSD), robust (<2% RSD), and statistically comparable to the British Pharmacopoeia method with better sensitivity and specificity.

CONCLUSION

It was observed that the stress degradation studies do not affect the method's accuracy and specificity. Hence the proposed method can be used to assay TA and its tablet dosage form.

The Study of Amorphous Kaempferol Dispersions Involving FT-IR Spectroscopy

Attenuated total reflection-Mid-Fourier transform-infrared (ATR-Mid-FT-IR) spectroscopy combined with principal component analysis (PCA) has been applied for the discrimination of amorphous solid dispersion (ASD) of kaempferol with different types of Eudragit (L100, L100-55, EPO). The ASD samples were prepared by ball milling. Training and test sets for PCA consisted of a pure compound, physical mixture, and incomplete/complete amorphous solid dispersion. The obtained results confirmed that the range 400-1700 cm-1 was the major contributor to the variance described by PC1 and PC2, which are the fingerprint region. The obtained PCA model selected fully amorphous samples as follows: five for KMP-EL100, two for KMP-EL100-55, and six for KMP-EPO (which was confirmed by the XRPD analysis). DSC analysis confirmed full miscibility of all ASDs (one glass transition temperature). FT-IR analysis confirmed the formation of hydrogen bonds between the -OH and/or -CH groups of KMP and the C=O group of Eudragits. Amorphization improved the solubility of kaempferol in pH 6.8, pH 5.5, and HCl 0.1 N.

Exploring the role of COX-2 in Alzheimer's disease: Potential therapeutic implications of COX-2 inhibitors

This review highlights the potential role of cyclooxygenase-2 enzyme (COX-2) in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD) and the potential therapeutic use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) in the management of AD. In addition to COX-2 enzymes role in inflammation, the formation of amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles in the brain, the review emphasizes that COXs-2 have a crucial role in normal synaptic activity and plasticity, and have a relationship with acetylcholine, tau protein, and beta-amyloid (Aβ) which are the main causes of Alzheimer's disease. Furthermore, the review points out that COX-2 enzymes have a relationship with kinase enzymes, including Cyclin Dependent Kinase 5 (CDK5) and Glycogen Synthase Kinase 3β (GSK3β), which are known to play a role in tau phosphorylation and are strongly associated with Alzheimer's disease. Therefore, the use of drugs like NSAIDs may be a hopeful approach for managing AD. However, results from studies examining the effectiveness of NSAIDs in treating AD have been mixed and further research is needed to fully understand the mechanisms by which COX-2 and NSAIDs may be involved in the development and progression of AD and to identify new therapeutic strategies.

Antimicrobial Activity of Auranofin, Cannabidivarin, and Tolfenamic Acid against Multidrug-Resistant Neisseria gonorrhoeae

Alternative antimicrobial therapies are urgently required for the multidrug-resistant bacterial pathogen Neisseria gonorrhoeae, for which currently ceftriaxone is the only remaining recommended first-line therapy. Repurposing of drugs that are approved for other clinical applications offers an efficient approach for development of alternative antimicrobial therapies. Auranofin, cannabidivarin, and tolfenamic acid were recently identified to display antimicrobial activity against N. gonorrhoeae. Here, we investigated their activity against a collection of 575 multidrug-resistant clinical isolates. All three compounds displayed consistent antimicrobial activity against all isolates, including against strains associated with the high-level ceftriaxone-resistant FC428 clone, with both the mode and MIC90 for auranofin of 0.5 mg/L, while both the mode and MIC90 for cannabidivarin and tolfenamic acid were 8 mg/L. Correlations between MICs of ceftriaxone and auranofin, cannabidivarin or tolfenamic acid were low, indicating that development of cross-resistance is unlikely. Furthermore, antimicrobial synergy analysis between ceftriaxone and auranofin, cannabidivarin, or tolfenamic acid by determination of the fractional inhibitory concentration index (FICI) resulted in an interpretation of indifference. Finally, time-kill analyses showed that all three compounds are bactericidal against both the N. gonorrhoeae ATCC 49226 reference strain and an FC428-associated clinical isolate, with particularly cannabidivarin displaying rapid bactericidal activity. Overall, auranofin, cannabidivarin, and tolfenamic acid displayed consistent antimicrobial activity against multidrug-resistant N. gonorrhoeae, warranting further exploration of their suitability as alternative antimicrobials for treatment of gonococcal infections. IMPORTANCE Neisseria gonorrhoeae is a major public health concern because of the high incidence of gonorrhea and the increasingly limited options for antimicrobial therapy. Strains associated with the FC428 clone are a particular concern because they have shown global dissemination and they display high-level resistance against the currently recommended ceftriaxone therapy. Therefore, development of alternative antimicrobial therapies is urgently required to ensure treatment of gonorrhea remains available in the future. Repurposing of clinically approved drugs could be a rapid approach for the development of such alternative antimicrobials. In this study, we showed that repurposing of auranofin, cannabidivarin, and tolfenamic acid for antimicrobial therapy of gonorrhea deserves further clinical explorations because these compounds displayed consistent antimicrobial activity against a large collection of contemporary multidrug-resistant gonococcal isolates that included strains associated with the FC428 clone.

Preparation, Characterization and Pharmacokinetics of Tolfenamic Acid-Loaded Solid Lipid Nanoparticles

The clinical use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs is limited by their poor water solubility, unstable absorption, and low bioavailability. Solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) exhibit high biocompatibility and the ability to improve the bioavailability of drugs with low water solubility. Therefore, in this study, a tolfenamic acid solid lipid nanoparticle (TA-SLN) suspension was prepared by a hot melt–emulsification ultrasonication method to improve the sustained release and bioavailability of TA. The encapsulation efficiency (EE), loading capacity (LC), particle size, polydispersity index (PDI), and zeta potential of the TA-SLN suspension were 82.50 ± 0.63%, 25.13 ± 0.28%, 492 ± 6.51 nm, 0.309 ± 0.02 and −21.7 ± 0.51 mV, respectively. The TA-SLN suspension was characterized by dynamic light scattering (DLS), fluorescence microscopy (FM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), and Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy. The TA-SLN suspension showed improved sustained drug release in vitro compared with the commercially available TA injection. After intramuscular administration to pigs (4 mg/kg), the TA-SLN suspension displayed increases in the pharmacokinetic parameters T_max, T_1/2, and MRT_0–∞ by 4.39-, 3.78-, and 3.78-fold, respectively, compared with TA injection, and showed a relative bioavailability of 185.33%. Thus, this prepared solid lipid nanosuspension is a promising new formulation.

Tolfenamic acid inhibits ROS-generating oxidase Nox1-regulated p53 activity in intrastriatal injection of malonic acid rats

It has been reported that wild-type p53-induced gene 1 (Wig1), which is downstream of p53, regulates the expression of mutant huntingtin protein (mHtt) in Huntington's disease (HD) patients and transgenic mouse brains. Intrastriatal injection of malonic acid in rats is often used as a model to study the pathological changes of Huntington's disease, and this model has the advantages of a fast preparation and low cost. Therefore, in this study, we used intrastriatal injections of 6 μM malonic acid in rats to evaluate the effect of tolfenamic acid on motor and cognitive deficits and the effect of 6 mg/kg and 32 mg/kg tolfenamic acid on p53 and its downstream targets, such as Wig1. The results showed that 32 mg/kg tolfenamic acid attenuated motor and spatial memory dysfunction, prevented Nox1-mediated reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, and downregulated the activity of p53 by increasing the phosphorylation level at the Ser378 site and decreasing the acetylation level at the Lys382 site. Tolfenamic acid reduced mouse double minute 2 (Mdm2), phosphatase and tensin homologue (Pten), P53-upregulated modulator of apoptosis (Puma) and Bcl2-associated X (Bax) at the mRNA level to inhibit apoptosis and downregulated sestrin 2 (Sesn2) and hypoxia inducible factor 1, alpha subunit (Hif-1α) mRNA levels to exert antioxidative stress effects. In addition, 32 mg/kg tolfenamic acid played a role in neuroprotection by decreasing the terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated dUTP nick end labelling (TUNEL)-positive cell numbers. However, there was no difference in the Wig mRNA level among all groups, and tolfenamic acid could not decrease the protein level of Wig1. In conclusion, tolfenamic acid inhibited the ROS-generating oxidase Nox1-regulated p53 activity and attenuated motor and spatial memory deficits in malonic acid-injected rats.

The Inclusion of Tolfenamic Acid into Cyclodextrins Stimulated by Microenvironmental pH Modification as a Way to Increase the Anti-Migraine Effect

PURPOSE

The poorly soluble nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID), tolfenamic acid (TA), was studied to maximize its solubility, permeability through biological membranes, and pharmacological activity.

METHODS

A mixture with magnesium stearate (MS) - microenvironment pH-modifier was prepared, as well as systems additionally containing incorporating substances methyl-β-cyclodextrin (M-β-CD) and 2-hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin (HP-β-CD). The identification of TA-MS-CD systems was confirmed using experimental methods: X-ray powder diffraction (XRPD) and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) with the theoretical support. Apparent solubility study was performed using the paddle apparatus, while in vitro gastrointestinal tract (GIT) and blood-brain barrier (BBB) permeability were conducted by using PAMPA (Parallel Artificial Membrane Permeability Assay). The in vivo part of the study used the mouse nitroglycerin (NTG)-induced migraine pain model.

RESULTS

From practically insoluble substance, TA in TA-MS-M-β-CD system dissolved up to 80.13% ± 2.77%, and in TA-MS-HP-β-CD up to 92.39% ± 3.25% in 180 minutes. An increase in TA permeability was also obtained in the TA-MS-M-β-CD and TA-MS-HP-β-CD systems through GIT membranes (Papp values 2.057 x 10-5 cm s-1 and 2.091 x 10-5 cm s-1, respectively) and through BBB (Papp values 3.658 x 10-5 cm s-1 and 3.629 x 10-5 cm s-1, respectively). The enlargement of the solubility and permeability impacted analgesia. The dose 25 mg/kg of both TA-MS-HP-β-CD and TA-MS-M-β-CD was almost equally effective and only slightly less effective than the dose 50 mg/kg of pure TA. Both TA-MS-HP-β-CD and TA-MS-M-β-CD used at 50 mg/kg more effectively attenuated tactile allodynia in NTG-treated mice than the same dose of pure TA. None of TA forms influenced heat hyperalgesia.

CONCLUSION

Increasing solubility of TA caused an increase of its analgesic effect in an animal model of migraine pain.

Tolfenamic acid on-line preconcentration strategy on carbon nanotubes minicolumn with fluorimetric detection

Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory agents (NSAIDs) are a group of pharmaceuticals considered one of the most popular drugs used in clinical practice applied to the treatment of acute and chronic conditions. Some pharmaceuticals products are excreted reaching the environment and altering the balance of ecosystems. This work proposes a new fluorimetric flow injection (FI) methodology for the NSAID tolfenamic acid quantification based on the quenching effect of the analyte on fluorescent signal of bovine serum albumin fluorophore. Results put in evidence a mechanism of static quenching, with a Stern Volmer constant value of 1.8 × 10⁷ L mol^-1. To achieve the selective on-line preconcentration of analyte, a carbon nanotubes mini column was introduced in the FI configuration producing a beneficial effect on high sampling frequency, minimum sample and reagents consumption. The experimental factors that influence batch fluorescent signal and FI analysis have been studied and optimized. At optimal experimental conditions, an adequate tolerance to foreign species was shown. With the flow configuration, a LOD of 0.019 μg L^-1, a LOQ of 0.058 μg L^-1 were obtained with a sampling rate of 30 samples h^-1. The new methodology was successfully applied to analyte determination in tap water and pharmaceutical and factory waste samples with recuperation near to 100%.

Electromagnetic Shielding by MXene-Graphene-PVDF Composite with Hydrophobic, Lightweight and Flexible Graphene Coated Fabric

MXene and graphene based thin, flexible and low-density composite were prepared by cost effective spray coating and solvent casting method. The fabricated composite was characterized using Raman spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscope (SEM), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and energy dispersive X-ray (EDX). The prepared composites showed hydrophobic nature with higher contact angle of 126°, -43 mN·m-1 wetting energy, -116 mN·m-1 spreading Coefficient and 30 mN·m-1 lowest work of adhesion. The composites displayed excellent conductivity of 13.68 S·cm-1 with 3.1 Ω·sq-1 lowest sheet resistance. All the composites showed an outstanding thermal stability and constrain highest weight lost until 400 °C. The MXene-graphene foam exhibited excellent EMI shielding of 53.8 dB (99.999%) with reflection of 13.10 dB and absorption of 43.38 dB in 8⁻12.4 GHz. The single coated carbon fabric displayed outstanding absolute shielding effectiveness of 35,369.82 dB·cm²·g-1. The above results lead perspective applications such as aeronautics, radars, air travels, mobile phones, handy electronics and military applications.