Are what happens next exercises and self-generated commentaries useful additions to hazard perception training for novice drivers?

Hazard perception training effectiveness on experienced drivers: decay of improvement in the follow-up

A variety of road hazard perception training programmes have been proposed recently, based on the assumption that these skills contribute to lower crash rates across different countries. However, the long-term effectiveness of suggested programmes has been under-investigated. The main objective of this study is to explore the long-term effectiveness of online hazard perception training for experienced drivers and examine the moderating role of driving self-efficacy. Fifty-six experienced drivers (21 males and 35 females) were assigned to the experimental (n = 31) or the control (n = 25) group. The experimental group received two 45 min session interventions; the control group received no intervention. The effectiveness of the programme was tested by the change in scores of Lithuanian hazard prediction test (HPT) LHP12 that was conducted before training (pre-test), immediately after training (post-test) and six months after training (follow-up). The twelve-item Adelaide Driving Self-Efficacy Scale (ADSES; George et al., 2007) was used to measure self-reported driving self-efficacy at the pre-test. The results revealed a significant increase in hazard prediction scores immediately after training, but the short-term effect of training decayed at follow-up. Experienced drivers with higher self-efficacy developed better hazard prediction skills during training. The results confirmed short-term effectiveness of the programme.

Improved Perception of Motorcycles by Simulator-Based Driving Education

Research shows that about half of all motorcycle collisions with other vehicles were caused by the accident opponent, typically a passenger car. This study aimed to assess the effect of simulator training on improving car drivers’ perceptibility of motorcycles and thereby addressing this frequent type of motorcycle accident from the perspective of the initiator. For this purpose, a training program with different methods was conducted and tested in a driving simulator with 80 learner drivers aged between 15 and 27 years, assigned to a control group and three training groups: variable priority, equal priority, and equal priority with warning. The conflict scenarios were determined based on an analysis of motorcycle–car accidents. The variable priority training program resulted in better perceptibility of motorcycles as compared to the equal priority training program and equal priority with warning in two out of four test setups, i.e., urban roads with high contrast between motorcycle and the driving environment and on rural roads with a low contrast. Most participants rated each training method in the driving simulator as useful and would recommend it to other learner drivers. These results are important because they show that simulator training has a positive effect on the motorcycle detection performance of learner drivers. The early perception of motorcycles in car drivers is essential for preventing collisions between cars and motorcycles.

Improving the tactical scanning of student pilots: A gaze-based training intervention for transition from visual flight into instrument meteorological conditions

Eye tracking has been applied to train novice drivers and clinicians; however, such applications in aviation are limited. This study develops a gaze-based intervention using video-based, expert commentary, and 3M (Mistake, Mitigation, Mastery) training to instruct visual flight rule student pilots on an instrument cross-check to mitigate the risk of losing aircraft control when they inadvertently enter instrument meteorological conditions (IMC). Twenty general aviation student pilots were randomized into control and experimental groups. Dwell time, return time, entropy, Kullback-Leibler divergence, and deviations from flight paths were compared before and after training to straight-and-level-flight (LF) and standard left level turn (LT) scenarios. After the training, the experimental pilots significantly increased dwell time on primary instruments (PIs), reduced randomness in visual search, and fixated on the PIs in shorter times (in the scenario of LT). In terms of piloting, all experimental pilots successfully kept the aircraft control while five control pilots lost control in IMC; significant differences in altitude and rate of climb deviations were observed between groups (in the scenario of LF).

Learner drivers (and their parent-supervisors) benefit from an online hazard perception course incorporating evidence-based training strategies and extensive crash footage

We previously found that a six-session online hazard perception training course, which incorporates evidence-based learning strategies and footage of over a hundred real crashes, improved hazard perception skill and reduced risk-taking intentions in novice drivers who had passed their on-road driving test within the previous three years. However, one issue with targeting crash-prevention training at individuals who are already driving unsupervised is that drivers are at their highest crash risk immediately after they pass their on-road driving test. That is, the training may arrive too late to protect drivers while they are at their most vulnerable. It is also possible that it may prove difficult to persuade drivers to complete an unsupervised training course if they are already licensed to drive independently. Given that learner drivers cannot drive unsupervised, and that they are typically supervised by a parent, one potential strategy is to target the training at learners and to ask their parents to provide one-on-one mentoring throughout the course. We therefore recruited learner driver/parent-supervisor dyads to participate in a randomized control study, with the objective of examining the effects of the hazard perception training course on aspects of driving behaviour associated with crash risk (as measured using validated computer-based tests). Outcome measures included two hazard perception skill assessments (a response time hazard perception test and a verbal response hazard prediction test), and three tests assessing aspects of risk-taking propensity in driving (speed choice, following distance, and gap acceptance). Learners who completed the course (N = 26) significantly improved their scores on both hazard perception skill measures, and also chose safer following distances, compared with a waitlist control group (N = 23). However, the training did not significantly reduce learners' speed choice or gap acceptance propensity. The hazard perception skill of parent-supervisors, who observed the course but did not complete it, also improved on both hazard perception measures, relative to controls. Additionally, both learners and their parent-supervisors reported a range of positive effects on the learners' real-world driving performance. These results suggest that this type of hazard perception training could be beneficial if deployed during the learner phase of driver licensing.

The influence of music tempo on mental load and hazard perception of novice drivers

INTRODUCTION

Many novice drivers listen to music while driving, but the effect of music-listening on novice driver's safety is uncertain. We explored how music tempo affects two key aspects of novice drivers' cognitive functioning, mental load and hazard perception.

METHOD

In a within-subjects experimental design study, 37 novice drivers completed a hazard perception test in simulated traffic situations under four randomly-ordered conditions: while listening to fast, medium, slow tempo music, and without listening to any music. Mental load was recorded both subjectively and through psychophysiological measures during all conditions.

RESULTS

When listening to fast-tempo music, novice drivers' subjective load value, heart rate and respiratory rate were significantly higher than that during the other two music tempo conditions and the no music condition. Skin temperature was significantly higher during fast-tempo music than during the slow music tempo and no music conditions. When listening to slow-tempo music, drivers' R-R interval (variability in heart rate, with longer intervals reflecting lower mental load) was significantly longer than while listening to fast and mid-tempo music, and their hazard perception scores were significantly higher than the other three conditions.

CONCLUSIONS

Listening to fast tempo music was associated with increased mental load and reduced hazard perception ability in traffic among novice drivers. Listening to slow tempo music did not increase novice drivers' mental load and offered some benefit to their hazard perception.

A thousand years of crash experience in three hours: An online hazard perception training course for drivers

A key goal of driver training is to teach drivers to avoid crashes. However, in traditional driver training, drivers are unlikely to see even a single example of the class of event that we want them to learn to avoid. We developed a six-session automated online hazard perception training course for drivers, which incorporates a range of evidence-based strategies and employs extensive video footage of real crashes. We evaluated this course in a randomized control trial by examining its effects on previously-validated computer-based measures of hazard perception, hazard prediction, speed choice, following distance, and gap acceptance propensity, as well as self-rated measures of driver skill, safety, and real world transfer. We found that the course resulted in significant improvements in hazard perception response time and hazard prediction scores, and significantly longer vehicle following distances. Additionally, all participants in the trained group reported that their real world driving behaviour had improved. No significant training effects were found for the other measures. The results suggest that the course can improve key behaviours associated with crash risk.

Development and validity of a hazard prediction test for Chinese drivers

Background

Hazard perception ability, which develops with driving experience, has been proven to be associated with drivers' traffic involvement. Although classic reaction time-based hazard perception tests have been developed in many developed counties, experience-related differences may not be found in drivers from developing countries due to their increased opportunities to experience hazards on roads. Therefore, the present study aims to develop a hazard prediction test for Chinese drivers based on a predictive paradigm called “What happens next?” and assess its reliability and validity.

Method

Thirty-six video clips filmed from drivers’ perspectives of Chinese driving settings were presented to 54 novice drivers and 47 experienced drivers. Participants were asked to answer three questions after each video clip was blacked out and to then quickly press the mouse button on a reaction time-based hazard perception test. Both the differences in the test scores between novice and experienced drivers and the differences in scores between drivers with and without traffic violations were compared.

Results

The final hazard prediction test consisted of 20 video clips. A high internal consistency coefficient of the test, i.e., Cronbach's alpha = 0.862, was obtained. The total scores of the test were positively and significantly correlated with reaction times as measured on the video-based hazard perception test, thus providing evidence regarding the discriminant validity of the test. More importantly, drivers with traffic violations obtained significantly lower total scores on the test than did drivers without traffic violations.

Conclusion

The newly developed hazard prediction test exhibited adequate psychometric properties and provided a practical alternative for assessing drivers’ hazard perception ability in China.

Visual attention in realistic driving situations: Attentional capture and hazard prediction

In real life, many objects catch our attention involuntarily or exogenously. Exogenous attention occurs fast and its effects are short-lived. In the laboratory, when attentional orientation is studied, both valid and invalid attentional signals are used: the valid ones direct the attention to a location where something relevant is going to appear. The invalid ones occur in a location where nothing relevant is going to happen. Usually, performance is improved when valid signals rather than invalid ones are presented. This work is novel in that it explores the effects of attentional capture and driving experience in situations of day-to-day driving while participants carry out a Hazard Prediction task. We created new Hazard Prediction (HPr) and Risk Estimation (RE) tests when driving by selecting 48 short videos recorded in a realistic way from the perspective of a car driver. We created valid and invalid trials by selecting videos in which a what?? was presented in the same spatial location as the one where the hazard was beginning to develop or in a different location. Simple situations, with only one developing hazard, were also presented. A total of 92 participants (30 experienced drivers, 32 novices and 30 with no experience) were placed in the position of the driver and answered the questions: 1) What will happen after the video is cut? 2) To what extent do you consider this situation risky? The results from the Hazard Prediction test replicate the attentional capture effect in complex driving situations, with invalid trials obtaining the worst results, followed by valid and simple ones. Participants with experience obtained better scores than novices, and novices were better than drivers without experience. No interaction between attentional orientation and experience was found, suggesting the obligatory and automatic nature of orientation processes, which do not appear to be compensated for by driving experience. No significant differences were found for the Risk Estimation test.

Studying Gaze Behavior to Compare Three Different Hazard Perception Tasks

OBJECTIVE

The aim of the current study was to compare the traditional, verbal, and motoric tasks regarding their contributions to hazard perception measurement.

BACKGROUND

Traditional hazard perception tasks require the participants to respond to filmed traffic conflicts in an imprecise way, such as by pressing a button. More sophisticated tasks include either verbal specification or motoric localization of the perceived hazards. The present study investigated the participants' gaze behavior when they were provided with an identical set of traffic animations but were instructed to perform one of three types of hazard perception tasks.

METHOD

In an eye tracking study, 69 drivers were shown animated traffic scenarios and instructed to perform the traditional (press button), verbal, or speeded motoric localization hazard perception task. Eye tracking revealed whether and when the participant had fixated a certain hazard cue.

RESULTS

The participants in the traditional task group were slower to fixate emerging hazards, but quicker to respond to them than the participants of the verbal and the motoric groups. As a specific benefit, the verbal task differentiated between different types of failures.

CONCLUSION

Additional verbal or speeded motoric localization tasks seem to have increased the participants' alertness when watching the animations. The verbal task provides valuable additional information regarding the participants' performance. To approximate real-life hazard perception ability, it is recommended that researchers and practitioners use a combination of different hazard perception tasks for assessment and training.

The development and validation of video-based measures of drivers' following distance and gap acceptance behaviours

The distance at which drivers follow other vehicles has been found to be linked to crash risk. Tailgating (i.e. driving at an unsafe following distance) is both endemic and a leading cause of rear-end crashes. Similarly, drivers' decisions about when to merge with a stream of traffic are likely to influence crash risk. Consistent with this, it has been shown that crashes are more common at intersections where drivers more frequently have to slow for vehicles pulling out into insufficient gaps. Therefore, the development of reliable and valid measures of both of these driving behaviours would facilitate further crash prevention research. Given the problems associated with assessing these behaviours during real driving, we developed new video-based measures. In our new following distance measure, participants view videos shot from the perspective of a driver who is following another vehicle at a range of distances across a variety of traffic environments. On each trial, participants report their own minimum comfortable following distance relative to the following distance depicted in the video. In our new test of gap acceptance behaviour, participants view a series of video clips and indicate when they would pull out into the approaching stream of traffic shown in each clip. The two new measures each yielded reliable data, and we found that young drivers made riskier choices than older drivers for both following distance and gap acceptance. These age-related differences are consistent with those found in observational studies of real driving, supporting the proposal that the new tests could potentially be used as proxies for these crash-related driving behaviours in both lab-based research and large-scale online studies.

Developing and testing a hazard prediction task for novice drivers: A novel application of naturalistic driving videos

INTRODUCTION

Novice drivers' inability to appropriately anticipate and respond to hazards has been implicated in their elevated crash risk. Our goal was to develop a driving hazard prediction task using naturalistic videos from the U.S. context that could distinguish between novice and experienced drivers.

METHOD

Using the query builder from the SHRP 2 InSight Data Access Website, we identified a sample of 1034 videos for further review. Task criteria reduced these to 30 videos of near-crash events that were split into event and non-event segments and were used to develop the driving hazard prediction task (task). Participants, aged 16-20 years-old (22 novice and 19 experienced drivers) completed the task during which they watched event and non-event videos and were asked, "How likely was the driver of this car to get into a crash?" after each video. Overall ratings for hazardousness were calculated for experienced and novice drivers as well as a group difference score for hazardousness.

RESULTS

All participants rated event videos as more hazardous than non-event videos, but there was no main effect of group. Rather, there was a significant EventbyGroup interaction in which there were no group differences in hazard ratings for non-event videos, but experienced drivers rated event videos as more hazardous than novice drivers. Specific characteristics of the event videos, such as the hazard development period, were related to differences between novice and experienced drivers' hazardousness ratings.

CONCLUSION

To the best of our knowledge, this is the first use of naturalistic driving videos from an existing database as experimental stimuli. We found that the task discriminated between novice and experienced drivers' ratings of hazardousness. This distinction suggests naturalistic driving videos may be viable stimuli for experimental studies. Practical Applications: The application of naturalistic driving video database for experimental research may hold promise.

How are distractibility and hazard prediction in driving related? Role of driving experience as moderating factor

Distraction constitute one of the 'five fatal' behaviours that contribute to road trauma, and some people may be more susceptible to it than others. It is also known that a greater ability to predict danger is related to a lower probability of suffering accidents. It could be hypothesised that drivers with a higher tendency to distraction are worse at predicting traffic hazards, but to what extent might driving experience serve to mitigate this tendency to distraction? The current study collected self-reported attentional errors from drivers by using the Attention-Related Driving Errors Scale (ARDES-Spain) in order to examine whether novice drivers suffered from inattention more than experienced drivers. The results demonstrated that novice drivers scored more highly on ARDES than experienced drivers. ARDES scores were then related to performance in a Hazard Prediction test, where participants had to report what hazard was about to happen in a series of video clips that occlude just as the hazard begins to develop. While experienced drivers were better at the Hazard Prediction test than novice drivers, those participants who reported fewer attention errors were also better able to detect the upcoming hazard following occlusion. In addition, our results demonstrate a relationship between self-reported attentional errors and the ability to predict upcoming hazards on the road, with driving experience having a moderating role. In the case of novice drivers, as their scores in the Manoeuvring Errors ARDES factor increase, their ability in Hazard Prediction diminishes, while for experienced drivers the increase is not significant. Guidance on how to improve training for drivers in order to mitigate the effects of inattention on driving safety can be addressed.

The effects of repetitive presentation of specific hazards on eye movements in hazard perception training, of experienced and young-inexperienced drivers

Recent evidence shows that compared to experienced drivers, young-inexperienced drivers are more likely to be involved in a crash mainly due to their poor hazard perception (HP) abilities. This skill develops with experience and may be developed through training. We assumed that as any other skill, HP developed through implicit learning. Nevertheless, current training methods, rely on deliberate learning where young-inexperienced drivers are instructed what hazards that they should seek and where they might be located. In this exploratory study, we investigated the effectiveness of a novel training procedure, in which learners were repeatedly exposed to target video clips of driving scenarios embedded within filler scenarios. Each of the target videos included scenarios of either a visible hazard, a hidden materialized hazard or hidden unmaterialized hazard. Twenty-three young-inexperienced drivers and 35 experienced drivers participated in training session followed by a learning transference testing session and 24 additional young-inexperienced drivers participated only in the transference testing session with no training, during which participants were shown novel hazards video clips. Participants responded by pressing a button when they identified a hazard. Eye movement was also tracked using fixations patterns as a proxy to evaluate HP performance. During training, young-inexperienced drivers gradually increased their focus on visible materialized hazards but exhibited no learning curve with respect to hidden hazards. During the learning transference session, both trained groups focused on hazards earlier compared to untrained drivers. These results imply that repetitive training may facilitate HP acquisition among young-inexperienced drivers. Patterns concerning experienced drivers are also discussed.

Commentary driver training: Effects of commentary exposure, practice and production on hazard perception and eye movements

Commentary driving typically involves being trained in how to produce a verbal running commentary about what you can see, what you are doing, what might happen and what action you will take to avoid potential hazards, while driving. Although video-based commentary training has been associated with subsequent hazard perception improvements, it can have a negative impact on hazard perception when a live commentary is produced at test (Young, Chapman, & Crundall, 2014). In the current study we use balanced training and testing blocks to isolate the effects of commentary exposure, production of a commentary with and without practice, and learning from earlier self-generation of commentary on behavioural and eye movement measures. Importantly, both commentary exposed and unexposed groups gave hazard perception responses during the commentary video, ensuring that the unexposed control group remained engaged in the procedure throughout. Results show that producing a live commentary is detrimental to concurrent hazard perception, even after practice, and does not enhance any later effect of commentary exposure. Although commentary exposure led to an initial increase in the accuracy of hazard perception responses, this effect was limited to the first occasion of testing, and showed no later benefits relative to engaged hazard exposure.

Hazard Perception in Driving

Hazard perception in driving refers to a driver’s ability to anticipate potentially dangerous situations on the road ahead and has been the subject of research for over 50 years. It is typically measured using computer-based hazard-perception tests and has been associated with both retrospective and prospective crash risk, as well as key crash-risk factors such as distraction, fatigue, alcohol consumption, speed choice, and age-related declines. It can also differentiate high- and lower-risk driver groups. The problem is that it is also a skill that appears to take decades of driving experience to acquire. This raises the question of whether it is possible and practical to accelerate this learning process via assessment and training in order to improve traffic safety. We have evidence that, in contrast to most driver education and assessment interventions, hazard-perception testing and training appear to have the capability to reduce crash risk. For example, the inclusion of a hazard-perception test in the UK driver licensing process has been estimated to reduce drivers’ non-low-speed public-road crash rates by 11.3% in the year following their test.

Hazard prediction discriminates between novice and experienced drivers

Typical hazard perception tests often confound multiple processes in their responses. The current study tested hazard prediction in isolation to assess whether this component can discriminate between novice and experienced drivers. A variant of the hazard perception test, based on the Situation Awareness Global Assessment Technique, found experienced drivers to outperform novices across three experiments suggesting that the act of predicting an imminent hazard is a crucial part of the hazard-perception process. Furthermore three additional hypotheses were tested in these experiments. First, performance was compared across clips of different length. There was marginal evidence that novice drivers' performance suffered with the longest clips, but experienced drivers' performance did not, suggesting that experienced drivers find hazard prediction less effortful. Secondly, predictive accuracy was found to be dependent on the temporal proximity of visual precursors to the hazard. Thirdly the relationship between the hazard and its precursor was found to be important, with less obvious precursors improving the discrimination between novice and experience drivers. These findings demonstrate that a measure of hazard prediction, which is less confounded by the influence of risk appraisal than simple response time measures, can still discriminate between novice and experienced drivers. Application of this methodology under different conditions can produce insights into the underlying processes that may be at work, whilst also providing an alternative test of driver skill in relation to the detection of hazards.

A Review of Hazard Anticipation Training Programs for Young Drivers

PURPOSE

Poor hazard anticipation skills are a risk factor associated with high motor vehicle crash rates of young drivers. A number of programs have been developed to improve these skills. The purpose of this review was to assess the empirical literature on hazard anticipation training for young drivers.

METHODS

Studies were included if they (1) included an assessment of hazard anticipation training outcomes; (2) were published between January 1, 1980 and December 31, 2013 in an English language peer-reviewed journal or conference proceeding; and (3) included at least one group that uniquely comprised a cohort of participants aged <21 years. Nineteen studies met inclusion criteria.

RESULTS

Studies used a variety of training methods including interactive computer programs, videos, simulation, commentary driving, or a combination of approaches. Training effects were predominantly measured through computer-based testing and driving simulation with eye tracking. Four studies included an on-road evaluation. Most studies evaluated short-term outcomes (immediate or few days). In all studies, young drivers showed improvement in selected hazard anticipation outcomes but none investigated crash effects.

CONCLUSIONS

Although there is promise in existing programs, future research should include long-term follow-up, evaluate crash outcomes, and assess the optimal timing of hazard anticipation training taking into account the age and experience level of young drivers.

Hazard perception test for pedestrians

RESEARCH GOAL

This research was aimed to construct and develop a unique system for training of pedestrians - children, adults and older persons - to cross streets safely and especially to detect successfully on-road hazards as pedestrians. For this purpose, an interactive computerized program has been inspired by the format of the popular HPT (hazard perception test) for drivers.

METHODS

The HPTP (hazard perception test for pedestrians) includes 10 pairs of video clips that were filmed in various locations but had a similar hazardous element. The clips presented potentially dangerous crossing scenarios such as a vehicle merging from the right side of the road from the perspective of the pedestrian who is trying to cross the street. The participants were asked to press the spacebar key every time they identified an approaching hazard. The participants were instructed to use the arrow keys for moving the viewing panel to the left or to the right in order to enlarge the field of view accordingly. Totally, 359 participants took part. Adults, children, and elders were assigned to two practice groups and three control groups in a 3 (age groups)×5 (experimental groups) design. One practice group underwent pretest, practice, discussion and posttest, the second experimental group through pretest, practice and posttest, one control group that underwent posttest only, the second control group underwent pretest, discussion and posttest and the third control group underwent both pretest and posttest.

FINDINGS

The most important finding was that children and adults who underwent practice received higher scores in the posttest compared to the pretest. Also, children who underwent practice increased their use of the arrow keys in the posttest compared to the pretest. Across conditions men scored higher than women on the HPTP, and used the keys more often. Age differences were found, with adults scoring being the highest, followed by children and the older persons.