Not all minds wander equally: The influence of traits, states and road environment factors on self-reported mind wandering during everyday driving

Conscious but not thinking-Mind-blanks during visuomotor tracking: An fMRI study of endogenous attention lapses

Attention lapses (ALs) are complete lapses of responsiveness in which performance is briefly but completely disrupted and during which, as opposed to microsleeps, the eyes remain open. Although the phenomenon of ALs has been investigated by behavioural and physiological means, the underlying cause of an AL has largely remained elusive. This study aimed to investigate the underlying physiological substrates of behaviourally identified endogenous ALs during a continuous visuomotor task, primarily to answer the question: Were the ALs during this task due to extreme mind-wandering or mind-blanks? The data from two studies were combined, resulting in data from 40 healthy non-sleep-deprived subjects (20M/20F; mean age 27.1 years, 20-45). Only 17 of the 40 subjects were used in the analysis due to a need for a minimum of two ALs per subject. Subjects performed a random 2-D continuous visuomotor tracking task for 50 and 20 min in Studies 1 and 2, respectively. Tracking performance, eye-video, and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) were recorded simultaneously. A human expert visually inspected the tracking performance and eye-video recordings to identify and categorise lapses of responsiveness as microsleeps or ALs. Changes in neural activity during 85 ALs (17 subjects) relative to responsive tracking were estimated by whole-brain voxel-wise fMRI and by haemodynamic response (HR) analysis in regions of interest (ROIs) from seven key networks to reveal the neural signature of ALs. Changes in functional connectivity (FC) within and between the key ROIs were also estimated. Networks explored were the default mode network, dorsal attention network, frontoparietal network, sensorimotor network, salience network, visual network, and working memory network. Voxel-wise analysis revealed a significant increase in blood-oxygen-level-dependent activity in the overlapping dorsal anterior cingulate cortex and supplementary motor area region but no significant decreases in activity; the increased activity is considered to represent a recovery-of-responsiveness process following an AL. This increased activity was also seen in the HR of the corresponding ROI. Importantly, HR analysis revealed no trend of increased activity in the posterior cingulate of the default mode network, which has been repeatedly demonstrated to be a strong biomarker of mind-wandering. FC analysis showed decoupling of external attention, which supports the involuntary nature of ALs, in addition to the neural recovery processes. Other findings were a decrease in HR in the frontoparietal network before the onset of ALs, and a decrease in FC between default mode network and working memory network. These findings converge to our conclusion that the ALs observed during our task were involuntary mind-blanks. This is further supported behaviourally by the short duration of the ALs (mean 1.7 s), which is considered too brief to be instances of extreme mind-wandering. This is the first study to demonstrate that at least the majority of complete losses of responsiveness on a continuous visuomotor task are, if not due to microsleeps, due to involuntary mind-blanks.

Measurement invariance of the driving inattention scale (ARDES) across 7 countries

The Attention-Related Driving Errors Scale (ARDES) is a self-report measure of individual differences in driving inattention. ARDES was originally developed in Spanish (Argentina), and later adapted to other countries and languages. Evidence supporting the reliability and validity of ARDES scores has been obtained in various different countries. However, no study has been conducted to specifically examine the measurement invariance of ARDES measures across countries, thus limiting their comparability. Can different language versions of ARDES provide comparable measures across countries with different traffic regulations and cultural norms? To what extent might cultural differences prevent researchers from making valid inferences based on ARDES measures? Using Alignment Analysis, the present study assessed the approximate invariance of ARDES measures in seven countries: Argentina (n = 603), Australia (n = 378), Brazil (n = 220), China (n = 308). Spain (n = 310), UK (n = 298), and USA (n = 278). The three-factor structure of ARDES scores (differentiating driving errors occurring at Navigation, Manoeuvring and Control levels) was used as the target theoretical model. A fixed alignment analysis was conducted to examine approximate measurement invariance. 12.3 % of the intercepts and 0.8 % of the item-factor loadings were identified as non-invariant, averaging 8.6 % of non-invariance. Despite substantial differences among the countries, sample recruitment or representativeness, study results support resorting to ARDES measures to make comparisons across the country samples. Thus, the range of cultures, laws and collision risk across these 7 countries provides a demanding assessment for a cultural-free inattention while-driving. The alignment analysis results suggest that ARDES measures reach near equivalence among the countries in the study. We hope this study will serve as a basis for future cross-cultural research on driving inattention using ARDES.

A randomized controlled pilot trial of brief online mindfulness training in young drivers

OBJECTIVE

Driver distraction contributes to fatal and injury crashes in young drivers. Mind wandering (MW) is a covert form of distraction involving task-unrelated thoughts. Brief online mindfulness training (MT) may reduce unsafe driving by enhancing recognition (meta-awareness) of MW and reducing its occurrence. This pilot trial tested these proposed mechanisms of MT and explored its specificity of action, effects on driving behaviour in simulation, as well as intervention adherence and acceptability in young drivers.

METHODS

A pre-post (T1, T2), randomized, active placebo-controlled, double-blinded design was used. Twenty-six drivers, aged 21-25, received either brief online MT (experimental) or progressive muscle relaxation (PMR, control) over 4-6 days. A custom website blindly conducted randomization, delivered interventions, administered questionnaires, and tracked adherence. At T1 and T2, a simulator measured driving behaviour while participants indicated MW whenever they recognized it, to assess meta-awareness, and when prompted by a thought-probe, to assess overall MW.

RESULTS

MT reduced MW while driving in simulation. The MT group reported higher state mindfulness following sessions. Motivation did not account for MW or mindfulness results. MT and meta-awareness were associated with more focus-related steering behaviour. Intervention groups did not significantly differ in adherence or attrition. No severe adverse effects were reported, but MT participants reported more difficulty following intervention instructions.

CONCLUSION

Results support a plausible mechanism of MT for reducing MW-related crash risk (i.e., reduction of MW) in young drivers. This preliminary evidence, alongside promising online adherence and acceptability results, warrants definitive efficacy and effectiveness trials of online MT.

Vehicle crash simulations for safety: Introduction of connected and automated vehicles on the roadways

Traffic accidents are one main cause of human fatalities in modern society. With the fast development of connected and autonomous vehicles (CAVs), there comes both challenges and opportunities in improving traffic safety on the roads. While on-road tests are limited due to their high cost and hardware requirements, simulation has been widely used to study traffic safety. To make the simulation as realistic as possible, real-world crash data such as crash reports could be leveraged in the creation of the simulation. In addition, to enable such simulations to capture the complexity of traffic, especially when both CAVs and human-driven vehicles co-exist on the road, careful consideration needs to be given to the depiction of human behaviors and control algorithms of CAVs and their interactions. In this paper, the authors reviewed literature that is closely related to crash analysis based on crash reports and to simulation of mixed traffic when CAVs and human-driven vehicles co-exist, for studying traffic safety. Three main aspects are examined based on our literature review: data source, simulation methods, and human factors. It was found that there is an abundance of research in the respective areas, namely, crash report analysis, crash simulation studies (including vehicle simulation, traffic simulation, and driving simulation), and human factors. However, there is a lack of integration between them. Future research is recommended to integrate and leverage different state-of-the-art transportation-related technologies to contribute to road safety by developing an all-in-one-step crash analysis system.

Detecting inattentiveness caused by mind-wandering during a driving task: A behavioral study

This study aims to investigate whether behavioral variability and participants' self-ratings can be used to detect mind-wandering while driving and to examine their effects on braking performance during a driving task. We created a novel driving task and added a sustained attention response task (SART). We examined the effects of mind-wandering on braking performance and whether mind-wandering could be detected from SART response variability. The within-subjects results showed that self-reports of inattentiveness during driving correlated significantly with SART response variability. Multiple regression analysis with brake reaction time as the dependent variable revealed a significant relationship between self-reports of inattentiveness and mind-wandering. However, there were no other consistent linear associations between mind-wandering and SART response variability. Our results not only suggest that inattentiveness to driving caused by mind-wandering impairs braking performance but also emphasize the importance and difficulty of detecting this state from behavioral data alone.

Influence of socioeconomic factors on discharge disposition following traumatic cervicothoracic spinal cord injury at level I and II trauma centers in the United States

BACKGROUND

Discharge to acute rehabilitation is strongly correlated with functional recovery after traumatic injury, including spinal cord injury (SCI). However, services such as acute care rehabilitation and Skilled Nursing Facilities (SNF) are expensive. Our objective was to understand if high-cost, resource-intensive post-discharge rehabilitation or alternative care facilities are utilized at disparate rates across socioeconomic groups after SCI.

METHODS

We performed a cohort analysis using the National Trauma Data Bank® tabulated from 2012-2016. Eligible patients had a diagnosis of cervical or thoracic spine fracture with spinal cord injury (SCI) and were treated surgically. We evaluated associations of sociodemographic and psychosocial variables with non-home discharge (e.g., discharge to SNF, other healthcare facility, or intermediate care facility) via multivariable logistic regression while correcting for injury severity and hospital characteristics.

RESULTS

We identified 3933 eligible patients. Patients who were older, male (OR=1.29 95% Confidence Interval [1.07-1.56], p=.007), insured by Medicare (OR=1.45 [1.08-1.96], p=.015), diagnosed with a major psychiatric disorder (OR=1.40 [1.03-1.90], p=.034), had a higher Injury Severity Score (OR=5.21 [2.96-9.18], p<.001) or a lower Glasgow Coma Score (3-8 points, OR=2.78 [1.81-4.27], p<.001) had a higher chance of a non-home discharge. The only sociodemographic variable associated with lower likelihood of utilizing additional healthcare facilities following discharge was uninsured status (OR=0.47 [0.37-0.60], p<.001).

CONCLUSIONS

Uninsured patients are less likely to be discharged to acute rehabilitation or alternative healthcare facilities following surgical management of SCI. High out-of-pocket costs for uninsured patients in the United States may deter utilization of these services.

Measuring the effects of mind wandering in people with insomnia: A driving simulator study

Purpose

Studies have shown that individuals with insomnia experience more frequent and longer episodes of mind wandering (MW) while driving. However, the effect of the interaction between insomnia and MW on driving behavior is not fully understood. This study aimed to gain deeper insights into the relationships among insomnia, MW, and driving behavior.

Patients and methods

Forty-two participants (21 diagnosed with insomnia and 21 controls) were recruited, and subjective sleep quality and cognitive function were assessed. A driving simulator experiment with a within-subject design was performed, involving two distraction tasks (no-distraction task versus MW task) and two driving scenarios (lane-keeping versus lane-changing).

Results

In the lane-keeping scenario, there was no significant between-group difference (people with insomnia and controls) in longitudinal driving performance for the no-distraction task, although the interaction between MW and insomnia significantly increased drivers’ longitudinal control variation. Correlation analysis confirmed that longitudinal driving performance was positively correlated with sleep quality and the cognitive level. Unlike longitudinal driving performance, lateral driving performance was significantly weaker in people with insomnia than in controls under both distraction tasks. In the lane-changing scenario, although there was no between-group difference in driving performance, the MW task led to significant changes in driving performance within each group compared with the no-distraction task, and these findings were associated with cognitive function, but not with sleep quality.

Conclusion

These findings show that insomnia and MW combined can lead to reduced driving performance. Further research is needed to elucidate the factors that influence this phenomenon.

The impacts of mind-wandering on flow: Examining the critical role of physical activity and mindfulness

Background

Individuals with mind-wandering experience their attention decoupling from their main task at hand while others with flow experience fully engage in their task with the optimum experience. There seems to be a negative relationship between mind-wandering and flow. However, it remains unclear to what extent mind-wandering exerts an impact on flow. And it is also elusive whether physical activity and mindfulness, which are as important factors that affected individuals’ attentional control and psychological health, are beneficial in explaining the association between mind-wandering and flow. The current study investigated the relationship between mind-wandering and flow, and the potential mediation effects of physical activity and mindfulness in this association.

Methods

A cross-sectional exploratory study design, including multiple scales such as the Mind-Wandering Questionnaire (MWQ), the International Physical Activity Questionnaire Short Form (IPAQ), Mindfulness Attention and Awareness Scale (MAAS), and the Short Dispositional Flow Scale (S-DFS) was applied. Descriptive statistics and bivariate correlation coefficients were applied in the analysis of these data. A multiple mediation model was used to examine the relationships between mind-wandering, flow, physical activity, and mindfulness.

Results

Mind-wandering was inversely associated with physical activity, mindfulness and flow, respectively; and flow was positively related to physical activity and mindfulness, respectively. Moreover, multiple mediation results demonstrated that physical activity and mindfulness, respectively, mediated the relationship between mind-wandering and flow.

Conclusion

These findings are helpful to understand how our minds attend to the present moment, and the crucial roles of physical activity and mindfulness in the association between mind-wandering and flow. An implication of these is the possibility that the effective strategies aimed at enhancing both the levels of physical activity and mindfulness are needed to reduce the negative impact of mind-wandering on flow.

Neural Correlates of Attention Lapses During Continuous Tasks

Attention lapses (ALs) are common phenomenon, which can affect our performance and productivity by slowing or suspending responsiveness. Occurrence of ALs during continuous monitoring tasks, such as driving or operating machinery, can lead to injuries and fatalities. However, we have limited understanding of what happens in the brain when ALs intrude during such continuous tasks. Here, we analyzed fMRI data from a study, in which participants performed a continuous visuomotor tracking task during fMRI scanning. A total of 68 ALs were identified from 20 individuals, using visual rating of tracking performance and video-based eye-closure. ALs were found to be associated with increased BOLD fMRI activity partially in the executive control network, and sensorimotor network. Surprisingly, we found no evidence of deactivations.

Desarrollo evolutivo humano y longevidad. Un análisis bio-psicosocial

En este trabajo se hace una revisión bibliográfica sobre el desarrollo evolutivo humano y longevidad, desde un enfoque biopsicosocial (Engel, 1977; Gliedt et al., 2017; Lehman et al., 2017). Tras aplicar el método de análisis PRISMA, se obtuvieron diversos resultados relacionados con un desarrollo evolutivo más longevo; así, en el área biológica, 3 factores: los SNPs, los telómeros y la química del estrés; en el área psicológica, 5 factores: la metacognición, la resiliencia, la espiritualidad, las relaciones personales y la depresión; y en el área social, 8 factores: la pseudo-heredabilidad, las relaciones conyugales, la maternidad, el nivel educativo, estilos de vida, dieta y restricción calórica, actividad física y mental y tecnología sanitaria. Ante los datos obtenidos en las tres áreas, de este enfoque biopsicosocial, y el repetido solapamiento entre factores del área psicológica y del área social, se plantea que pudieran considerarse estas dos como una conjunta, proponiéndose un enfoque explicativo con dos áreas: bio-psicosocial que, por factores encontrados en este trabajo, quedarían un 18,7% de biológica y un 81,3% psicosocial. Actualmente, hay suficiente información sobre desarrollo evolutivo humano y longevidad, pero una ausencia de investigaciones que estudien esos factores desde una perspectiva integrada. Mucha de esa información privilegiada se podría aplicar ya, psicológica y socialmente, a la población en general, para una mejora de su salud, en cualquier fase del desarrollo evolutivo humano.

Do mindfulness interventions improve road safety? A systematic review

Mindfulness has been identified as a potentially effective intervention for reducing road trauma. In this paper, we report on the results of a systematic review which examined the evidence regarding the relationship between mindfulness and road safety. The review was conducted following PRISMA guidelines (PROSPERO 2017: CRD42017075704). The primary outcomes measured were crash or near-crash rates and the secondary outcomes were driving violations (including speeding and texting while driving) and driving performance (i.e., errors in driving simulator, etc.). This review was registered with PROSPERO 2017: CRD42017075704. A systematic search of databases from the disciplines of public health, psychology and transport safety (Ovid Cochrane Library, Ovid PsycINFO, Ovid EMBASE, CINAHL PLUS, Ovid TRANSPORT and TRID: TRIS and ITRD database) was conducted on February 7^th 2018. Seventeen studies (12 cross-sectional and 5 case-control) published between 2011 and 2017 met the inclusion criteria. These all focused on the association between mindfulness or mind-wandering on road safety measures including driving performance (vehicle control, reaction time), compliance with speed zones and traffic signals, near-crash and crash rates, as well as propensity to engage in distracted driving behaviours. The results of the review suggest that mindfulness may be particularly useful for preventing distracted driving. However, a number of limitations in the existing research are noted. It is clear that more research is warranted to specifically investigate the effectiveness of mindfulness as an intervention for reducing road trauma.

Mind wandering during everyday driving: An on-road study

This study was an investigation into mind wandering during everyday driving, and its association with crash patterns. We selected a 25 km route on urban roads for analysis of crashes, and an on-road study of mind wandering by a sample of drivers familiar with the route. We analysed reported crashes on the route over a five year period from New Zealand's crash database. For the on-road study a researcher accompanied 25 drivers on the route, asking them what they were thinking about at 15 predetermined road sections. The road sections were selected to include a range of different speed limits and traffic volumes as well as roundabouts, priority intersections and midblocks. Thought samples were categorised as either mind wandering or driving focus, and triggered by the senses, or internally. The frequencies of mind wandering at different road sections on the route were compared to the frequencies of reported crashes along the same route over the preceding five years. Results showed that although all drivers reported mind wandering, it was more likely to be reported at slower, quieter, less complex road sections. Overall, more crashes were reported at priority intersections and midblocks than at roundabouts, but the crash rate (per road section) was higher at roundabouts, where mind wandering was least likely to be reported. These findings suggest that although drivers' minds wander constantly, driving focus is commanded in demanding situations and in response to the actions of other road users. While mind wandering is ubiquitous, drivers are least likely to report mind wandering at locations showing the highest crash rates. More work is needed to test these findings and to provide direction for road safety interventions.

What is the relationship between self-reported aberrant driving behaviors, mindfulness, and self-reported crashes and infringements?

OBJECTIVES

This study investigated the relationship between self-reported aberrant driving behaviors, mindfulness, and self-reported crashes and infringements.

METHODS

Three hundred and eighteen participants (M = 46.0 years, SD = 13.7 years; female: 81.8%) completed an online survey that assessed aberrant driving behaviors, mindfulness (including regular mindfulness meditation [MM]), and self-reported crashes and infringements during the past 2 years. Structural equation modeling (SEM) was used to examine the relationship between self-reported aberrant driving behaviors and mindfulness simultaneously, as well as with participants' age and estimated kilometers driven over the past year.

RESULTS

The results of the SEM showed that mindfulness was negatively related to each self-reported aberrant driving behavior, with the strongest relationships being between mindfulness and driving-related lapses (-0.58) and errors (-0.46). Participants who practice MM had significantly fewer crashes in the past 2 years and reported significantly fewer driving-related violations and lapses compared to participants who did not practice MM (crashes: 9.3% vs. 18.8%, P < .05; violations: M = 6.66 [SD = 3.44] vs. M = 7.68 [SD = 4.53], P < .05; errors: M = 5.17 [SD = 3.44] vs. M = 6.19 [SD = 4.12], P < .05).

CONCLUSIONS

More research is needed to understand whether MM results in more mindful and attentive drivers or whether individuals who practice MM may have other traits or behaviors that are linked to improved safety.

A. Massar S, Chee MWL, Lim J. Towards an Objective Measure of Mindfulness: Replicating and Extending the Features of the Breath-Counting Task

Despite calls for objective measures of mindfulness to be adopted in the field, such practices have not yet become established. Recently, a breath-counting task (BCT) was proposed as a reliable and valid candidate for such an instrument. In this study, we show that the psychometric properties of the BCT are reproducible in a sample of 127 Asian undergraduates. Specifically, accuracy on the BCT was associated with everyday lapses and sustained attention, and weakly associated with subjectively measured mindfulness. BCT metrics also showed good test-retest reliability. Extending the use of the paradigm, we further found that two different types of task errors-miscounts and resets-were correlated with different aspects of cognition. Miscounts, or errors made without awareness, were associated with attentional lapses, whereas resets, or self-caught errors, were associated with mind-wandering. The BCT may be a suitable candidate for the standardized measurement of mindfulness that could be used in addition to mindfulness questionnaires.

Driver behavior analysis for right-turn drivers at signalized intersections using SHRP 2 naturalistic driving study data

INTRODUCTION

Understanding driver behavior is important for traffic safety and operation, especially at intersections where different traffic movements conflict. While most driver-behavior studies are based on simulation, this paper documents the analysis of driver-behavior at signalized intersections with the SHRP 2 Naturalistic Driving Study (NDS) data. This study analyzes the different influencing factors on the operation (speed control) and observation of right-turn drivers.

METHOD

A total of 300 NDS trips at six signalized intersections were used, including the NDS time-series sensor data, the forward videos and driver face videos. Different factors of drivers, vehicles, roads and environments were studied for their influence on driver behavior. An influencing index function was developed and the index was calculated for each influencing factor to quantitatively describe its influencing level. The influencing index was applied to prioritize the factors, which facilitates development and selection of safety countermeasures to improve intersection safety. Drivers' speed control was analyzed under different conditions with consideration of the prioritized influencing factors.

RESULTS

Vehicle type, traffic signal status, conflicting traffic, conflicting pedestrian and driver age group were identified as the five major influencing factors on driver observation.

CONCLUSIONS

This research revealed that drivers have high acceleration and low observation frequency under Right-Turn-On-Red (RTOR), which constituted potential danger for other roadway users, especially for pedestrians.

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS

As speed has a direct influence on crash rates and severities, the revealed speed patterns of the different situations also benefit selection of safety countermeasures at signalized intersections.

Detecting and Quantifying Mind Wandering during Simulated Driving

Mind wandering is a pervasive threat to transportation safety, potentially accounting for a substantial number of crashes and fatalities. In the current study, mind wandering was induced through completion of the same task for 5 days, consisting of a 20-min monotonous freeway-driving scenario, a cognitive depletion task, and a repetition of the 20-min driving scenario driven in the reverse direction. Participants were periodically probed with auditory tones to self-report whether they were mind wandering or focused on the driving task. Self-reported mind wandering frequency was high, and did not statistically change over days of participation. For measures of driving performance, participant labeled periods of mind wandering were associated with reduced speed and reduced lane variability, in comparison to periods of on task performance. For measures of electrophysiology, periods of mind wandering were associated with increased power in the alpha band of the electroencephalogram (EEG), as well as a reduction in the magnitude of the P3a component of the event related potential (ERP) in response to the auditory probe. Results support that mind wandering has an impact on driving performance and the associated change in driver’s attentional state is detectable in underlying brain physiology. Further, results suggest that detecting the internal cognitive state of humans is possible in a continuous task such as automobile driving. Identifying periods of likely mind wandering could serve as a useful research tool for assessment of driver attention, and could potentially lead to future in-vehicle safety countermeasures.