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Cai CX, Schneck NA, Cozine T, Ivleva VB, Ragheb D, Gollapudi D, Patel A, Barefoot N, Gowetski DB, Lei QP. Investigation of Cysteine Modifications in Recombinant Protein Tetanus Toxoid Heavy Chain Fragment C. JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR MASS SPECTROMETRY 2021; 32:1837-1840. [PMID: 34167299 PMCID: PMC9241332 DOI: 10.1021/jasms.1c00075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
For conjugated HIV-1 fusion peptide vaccine development, recombinant Tetanus toxoid heavy chain fragment C (rTTHC) was applied as a carrier protein to boost peptide immunogenicity. Understanding the characteristics of rTTHC is the first step prior to the peptide conjugation. A comprehensive mass spectrometry (MS) characterization was performed on E. coli expressed rTTHC during its purification process. Intact mass along with peptide mapping analysis discovered the existence of three cysteine modification forms: glutathionylation, trisulfide bond modification, and disulfide bond shuffling, in correlation to a three-peak profile during a hydrophobic interaction chromatography (HIC) purification step. Coexistence of these multiple oxidative forms indicated that the active thiols underwent redox reaction in the rTTHC material. Identity confirmation of the rTTHC carrier protein by MS analysis provided pivotal guidance to assess the purification step and helped ensure that vaccine development could proceed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cindy X Cai
- Vaccine Production Program Laboratory, Vaccine Research Center, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Gaithersburg, Maryland 20878, United States
| | - Nicole A Schneck
- Vaccine Production Program Laboratory, Vaccine Research Center, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Gaithersburg, Maryland 20878, United States
| | - Taryn Cozine
- Vaccine Production Program Laboratory, Vaccine Research Center, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Gaithersburg, Maryland 20878, United States
| | - Vera B Ivleva
- Vaccine Production Program Laboratory, Vaccine Research Center, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Gaithersburg, Maryland 20878, United States
| | - Daniel Ragheb
- Vaccine Production Program Laboratory, Vaccine Research Center, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Gaithersburg, Maryland 20878, United States
| | - Deepika Gollapudi
- Vaccine Production Program Laboratory, Vaccine Research Center, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Gaithersburg, Maryland 20878, United States
| | - Aakash Patel
- Vaccine Production Program Laboratory, Vaccine Research Center, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Gaithersburg, Maryland 20878, United States
| | - Nathan Barefoot
- Vaccine Production Program Laboratory, Vaccine Research Center, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Gaithersburg, Maryland 20878, United States
| | - Daniel B Gowetski
- Vaccine Production Program Laboratory, Vaccine Research Center, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Gaithersburg, Maryland 20878, United States
| | - Q Paula Lei
- Vaccine Production Program Laboratory, Vaccine Research Center, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Gaithersburg, Maryland 20878, United States
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Giustarini D, Milzani A, Dalle-Donne I, Rossi R. Measurement of S-glutathionylated proteins by HPLC. Amino Acids 2021; 54:675-686. [PMID: 34129091 PMCID: PMC9117368 DOI: 10.1007/s00726-021-03015-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2021] [Accepted: 05/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
S-glutathionylated proteins (GSSP), i.e., protein-mixed disulfides with glutathione (GSH), are considered a suitable biomarker of oxidative stress. In fact, they occur within cells at low level and their concentration increases markedly under pro-oxidant conditions. Plasma is something different, since it is physiologically rich in S-thiolated proteins (RSSP), i.e., protein-mixed disulfides with various types of low molecular mass thiols (LMM-SH). However, albumin, which is largely the most abundant plasma protein, possesses a cysteine residue at position 34 that is mostly reduced (about 60%) under physiological conditions, but easily involved in the formation of additional RSSP in the presence of oxidants. The quantification of GSSP requires special attention to sample handling, since their level can be overestimated as a result of artefactual oxidation of GSH. We have developed the present protocol to avoid this methodological problem. Samples should be treated as soon as possible after their collection with the alkylating agent N-ethylmaleimide that masks –SH groups and prevents their oxidation. The GSH released from mixed disulfides by reduction with dithiothreitol is then labeled with the fluorescent probe monobromobimane and quantified by HPLC. The method can be applied to many different biological samples, comprising blood components, red blood cell plasma membrane, cultured cells, and solid organs from animal models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Giustarini
- Department of Biotechnology, Chemistry and Pharmacy (Department of Excellence 2018-2022), Laboratory of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Siena, Via A. Moro 4, 53100, Siena, Italy.
| | - Aldo Milzani
- Department of Biosciences (Department of Excellence 2018-2022), Università Degli Studi Di Milano, via Celoria 26, I-20133, Milan, Italy
| | - Isabella Dalle-Donne
- Department of Biosciences (Department of Excellence 2018-2022), Università Degli Studi Di Milano, via Celoria 26, I-20133, Milan, Italy
| | - Ranieri Rossi
- Department of Biotechnology, Chemistry and Pharmacy (Department of Excellence 2018-2022), Laboratory of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Siena, Via A. Moro 4, 53100, Siena, Italy
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Enzymatic glutaredoxin-dependent method to determine glutathione and protein S-glutathionylation using fluorescent eosin-glutathione. Anal Biochem 2019; 568:24-30. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ab.2018.12.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2018] [Revised: 10/18/2018] [Accepted: 12/27/2018] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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Giustarini D, Colombo G, Garavaglia ML, Astori E, Portinaro NM, Reggiani F, Badalamenti S, Aloisi AM, Santucci A, Rossi R, Milzani A, Dalle-Donne I. Assessment of glutathione/glutathione disulphide ratio and S-glutathionylated proteins in human blood, solid tissues, and cultured cells. Free Radic Biol Med 2017; 112:360-375. [PMID: 28807817 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2017.08.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2017] [Revised: 08/04/2017] [Accepted: 08/09/2017] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Glutathione (GSH) is the major non-protein thiol in humans and other mammals, which is present in millimolar concentrations within cells, but at much lower concentrations in the blood plasma. GSH and GSH-related enzymes act both to prevent oxidative damage and to detoxify electrophiles. Under oxidative stress, two GSH molecules become linked by a disulphide bridge to form glutathione disulphide (GSSG). Therefore, assessment of the GSH/GSSG ratio may provide an estimation of cellular redox metabolism. Current evidence resulting from studies in human blood, solid tissues, and cultured cells suggests that GSH also plays a prominent role in protein redox regulation via S -glutathionylation, i.e., the conjugation of GSH to reactive protein cysteine residues. A number of methodologies that enable quantitative analysis of GSH/GSSG ratio and S-glutathionylated proteins (PSSG), as well as identification and visualization of PSSG in tissue sections or cultured cells are currently available. Here, we have considered the main methodologies applied for GSH, GSSG and PSSG detection in biological samples. This review paper provides an up-to-date critical overview of the application of the most relevant analytical, morphological, and proteomics approaches to detect and analyse GSH, GSSG and PSSG in mammalian samples as well as discusses their current limitations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Giustarini
- Department of Medicine, Surgery and Neurosciences, University of Siena, 53100 Siena, Italy
| | - Graziano Colombo
- Department of Biosciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy
| | | | - Emanuela Astori
- Department of Biosciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Nicola Marcello Portinaro
- Clinica ortopedica e traumatologica, Humanitas Clinical and Research Center, 20089 Rozzano, Milan, Italy
| | - Francesco Reggiani
- Nephrology and Dialysis Unit, Humanitas Clinical and Research Center, 20089 Rozzano, Milan, Italy
| | - Salvatore Badalamenti
- Nephrology and Dialysis Unit, Humanitas Clinical and Research Center, 20089 Rozzano, Milan, Italy
| | - Anna Maria Aloisi
- Department of Medicine, Surgery and Neurosciences, University of Siena, 53100 Siena, Italy
| | - Annalisa Santucci
- Department of Biotechnology, Chemistry and Pharmacy, University of Siena, 53100 Siena, Italy
| | - Ranieri Rossi
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Siena, 53100 Siena, Italy
| | - Aldo Milzani
- Department of Biosciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Isabella Dalle-Donne
- Department of Biosciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy.
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Ullevig SL, Kim HS, Short JD, Tavakoli S, Weintraub ST, Downs K, Asmis R. Protein S-Glutathionylation Mediates Macrophage Responses to Metabolic Cues from the Extracellular Environment. Antioxid Redox Signal 2016; 25:836-851. [PMID: 26984580 PMCID: PMC5107721 DOI: 10.1089/ars.2015.6531] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
AIMS Protein S-glutathionylation, the formation of a mixed disulfide between glutathione and protein thiols, is an oxidative modification that has emerged as a new signaling paradigm, potentially linking oxidative stress to chronic inflammation associated with heart disease, diabetes, cancer, lung disease, and aging. Using a novel, highly sensitive, and selective proteomic approach to identify S-glutathionylated proteins, we tested the hypothesis that monocytes and macrophages sense changes in their microenvironment and respond to metabolic stress by altering their protein thiol S-glutathionylation status. RESULTS We identified over 130 S-glutathionylated proteins, which were associated with a variety of cellular functions, including metabolism, transcription and translation, protein folding, free radical scavenging, cell motility, and cell death. Over 90% of S-glutathionylated proteins identified in metabolically stressed THP-1 monocytes were also found in hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)-treated cells, suggesting that H2O2 mediates metabolic stress-induced protein S-glutathionylation in monocytes and macrophages. We validated our findings in mouse peritoneal macrophages isolated from both healthy and dyslipidemic atherosclerotic mice and found that 52% of the S-glutathionylated proteins found in THP-1 monocytes were also identified in vivo. Changes in macrophage protein S-glutathionylation induced by dyslipidemia were sexually dimorphic. INNOVATION We provide a novel mechanistic link between metabolic (and thiol oxidative) stress, macrophage dysfunction, and chronic inflammatory diseases associated with metabolic disorders. CONCLUSION Our data support the concept that changes in the extracellular metabolic microenvironment induce S-glutathionylation of proteins central to macrophage metabolism and a wide array of cellular signaling pathways and functions, which in turn initiate and promote functional and phenotypic changes in macrophages. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 25, 836-851.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah L Ullevig
- 1 Department of Kinesiology, Health, and Nutrition, University of Texas at San Antonio , San Antonio, Texas
| | - Hong Seok Kim
- 2 Department of Molecular Medicine, College of Medicine, Inha University , Incheon, Korea
| | - John D Short
- 3 Department of Pharmacology, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio , San Antonio, Texas
| | - Sina Tavakoli
- 4 Department of Radiology, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio , San Antonio, Texas
| | - Susan T Weintraub
- 5 Institutional Mass Spectrometry Core Laboratory, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio , San Antonio, Texas.,6 Department of Biochemistry, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio , San Antonio, Texas
| | - Kevin Downs
- 7 Department of Cellular and Structural Biology, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio , San Antonio, Texas
| | - Reto Asmis
- 4 Department of Radiology, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio , San Antonio, Texas.,6 Department of Biochemistry, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio , San Antonio, Texas.,8 Department of Clinical Laboratory Sciences, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio , San Antonio, Texas
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Glutathionyl systems and metabolic dysfunction in obesity. Nutr Rev 2015; 73:858-68. [DOI: 10.1093/nutrit/nuv042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2015] [Accepted: 04/18/2015] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
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