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Hassan SS, Kamel AH, Awwad NS, Aboterika AH. Characterization of Some "Hashish" Samples in the Egyptian Illicit Trafficking Market Using a Thermal Separation Probe and Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry. ACS OMEGA 2023; 8:25378-25384. [PMID: 37483228 PMCID: PMC10357578 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.3c02809] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2023] [Accepted: 06/19/2023] [Indexed: 07/25/2023]
Abstract
Drugs that are illegal have long been a part of Egyptian society. The most widely misused form of narcotic is marijuana, also known as "bango", and other cannabis-related products like "hashish". The chemical profile of some available "hashish" in the local Egyptian illegal market and its possible country of origin are investigated using a gas chromatography-mass spectrometry technique in conjunction with a thermal separation probe (TSP/GC/MS). The TSP/GC/MS method reveals the presence of 23 different terpenes, of which caryophylla-4(12),8(13)-dien-5α-ol, isoaromadendrene epoxide, caryophyllene, and alloaromadendrene oxide-(1) are detected in high relative proportions. Ten cannabinoid components are also detected. These are cannabiorcochromene (CBC-C1), tetrahydrocannabivarin (THCV), delta-8-tetrahydrocannabinol (delta-8-THC), exo-THC, cannabichromene, cannabidiol (CBD), cannabielsoin (CBE), dronabinol (delta-9-THC), cannabigerol (CBG), and cannabinol (CBN). Phenotypic index (THC % + CBN %)/CBD %) is measured for the test samples to identify both the nature of the samples (fiber- or drug-type cannabis) and the country of origin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saad S.M. Hassan
- Department
of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Ain Shams
University, Cairo 11566, Egypt
| | - Ayman H. Kamel
- Department
of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Ain Shams
University, Cairo 11566, Egypt
- Department
of Chemistry, College of Science, University
of Bahrain, Zallaq P.O.
Box 32038, Bahrain
| | - Nasser S. Awwad
- Department
of Chemistry, King Khalid University, P.O. Box 9004, Abha 61413, Saudi Arabia
| | - Awaad H.A. Aboterika
- Central
Laboratory, Faculty of Science, Ain Shams
University, Cairo 11566, Egypt
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Araujo dos Santos N, Kerpel dos Santos M, Almirall J, Romão W. Cannabinomics studies – A review from colorimetric tests to modern analytical techniques: Part II. Forensic Chem 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forc.2023.100477] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
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3
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Oleamide as analyte protectant in GC analysis of THC and its metabolites in blood. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2022; 215:114800. [PMID: 35489245 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2022.114800] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2022] [Revised: 04/06/2022] [Accepted: 04/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Methods for the analysis of cannabinoids in bio-matrices are continually being developed, to achieve a proper sensitivity required for their detection and accuracy in their quantification. The presented paper shows that the analytical sensitivity of GC-MS to THC and its metabolites in blood samples can be significantly increase by oleamide (OLA) addition to the examined sample, which evokes the matrix effect of transient character. The magnitude of signal increment resulting from oleamide presence in the examined sample is the greatest for THC metabolites and depends on oleamide concentration in the examined sample. The use of transient matrix effect to increase the sensitivity of the analysis can be applied not only in QuEChERS procedure, which is applied in the described experiments, but also in other blood sample preparation methods. Evoking the transient matrix effect by means of OLA in the experimental analytical quantitation of THC and its metabolites in blood allowed to lower limit of detection (LOD) approximately by 20.5%, 87.6% and 90.1% in the case of THC, THC-OH and THC-COOH, respectively.
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Analytical Techniques for Phytocannabinoid Profiling of Cannabis and Cannabis-Based Products-A Comprehensive Review. MOLECULES (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 27:molecules27030975. [PMID: 35164240 PMCID: PMC8838193 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27030975] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2021] [Revised: 12/31/2021] [Accepted: 01/09/2022] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Cannabis is gaining increasing attention due to the high pharmacological potential and updated legislation authorizing multiple uses. The development of time- and cost-efficient analytical methods is of crucial importance for phytocannabinoid profiling. This review aims to capture the versatility of analytical methods for phytocannabinoid profiling of cannabis and cannabis-based products in the past four decades (1980–2021). The thorough overview of more than 220 scientific papers reporting different analytical techniques for phytocannabinoid profiling points out their respective advantages and drawbacks in terms of their complexity, duration, selectivity, sensitivity and robustness for their specific application, along with the most widely used sample preparation strategies. In particular, chromatographic and spectroscopic methods, are presented and discussed. Acquired knowledge of phytocannabinoid profile became extremely relevant and further enhanced chemotaxonomic classification, cultivation set-ups examination, association of medical and adverse health effects with potency and/or interplay of certain phytocannabinoids and other active constituents, quality control (QC), and stability studies, as well as development and harmonization of global quality standards. Further improvement in phytocannabinoid profiling should be focused on untargeted analysis using orthogonal analytical methods, which, joined with cheminformatics approaches for compound identification and MSLs, would lead to the identification of a multitude of new phytocannabinoids.
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Boumrah Y, Baroudi S, Kecir M, Bouanani S. Characterization of Algerian-Seized Hashish Over Eight Years (2011-2018). Part II: Chemical Categorization. J Forensic Sci 2020; 65:1845-1851. [PMID: 32790193 DOI: 10.1111/1556-4029.14533] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2020] [Revised: 07/10/2020] [Accepted: 07/13/2020] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
In Algeria, large quantities of hashish are seized every year. This study aimed to investigate the total content of major cannabinoids in the illicit seized hashish in Algeria over an 8-year period (2011-2018) in order to establish the chemical profile of North African hashish. A total of 3265 hashish samples were analyzed using a validated high-performance liquid chromatography-diode array detection (HPLC-DAD) method, allowing the simultaneous quantification of both the acidic and the neutral forms of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), cannabidiol (CBD), and cannabinol (CBN). The results revealed a slight upward trend in the mean THC content, from 7.0% in 2011 to 9.4% in 2018, with an overall mean value of 8.4%. The overall means of CBD and CBN content were 3.5% and 0.8%, respectively. The number of high-potency hashish samples gradually increased to reach 6% in 2018. Two distinct hashish chemotypes were identified: the highly populated chemotype II, corresponding to the traditional medium-potency hashish ([THC + CBN]/CBD ~ 2.16), and chemotype I, containing hashish samples of relatively high THC levels and low levels of CBD (ratio ~ 4.90). Both chemotypes I and II were characterized in the ternary plot, and the proportions (THC:CBD:CBN) were about 85%:13%:2% and 60%:35%:5%, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yacine Boumrah
- Département de Toxicologie, Institut National de Criminalistique et de Criminologie (INCC-GN), Boite Postale 194, Bouchaoui, Algiers, 16000, Algeria
| | - Salem Baroudi
- Département de Toxicologie, Institut National de Criminalistique et de Criminologie (INCC-GN), Boite Postale 194, Bouchaoui, Algiers, 16000, Algeria
| | - Mohamed Kecir
- Département de Toxicologie, Institut National de Criminalistique et de Criminologie (INCC-GN), Boite Postale 194, Bouchaoui, Algiers, 16000, Algeria
| | - Sabrina Bouanani
- Département de Toxicologie, Institut National de Criminalistique et de Criminologie (INCC-GN), Boite Postale 194, Bouchaoui, Algiers, 16000, Algeria
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Fodor B, Molnár-Perl I. The role of derivatization techniques in the analysis of plant cannabinoids by gas chromatography mass spectrometry. Trends Analyt Chem 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trac.2017.07.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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Daéid NN. Drugs of abuse. Forensic Chem 2015. [DOI: 10.1002/9781118897768.ch1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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8
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Cloud point extraction of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol from cannabis resin. Anal Bioanal Chem 2013; 405:3117-23. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-013-6743-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2012] [Revised: 12/07/2012] [Accepted: 01/13/2013] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Bruci Z, Papoutsis I, Athanaselis S, Nikolaou P, Pazari E, Spiliopoulou C, Vyshka G. First systematic evaluation of the potency of Cannabis sativa plants grown in Albania. Forensic Sci Int 2012; 222:40-6. [PMID: 22608266 DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2012.04.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2011] [Revised: 04/18/2012] [Accepted: 04/30/2012] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Cannabis products (marijuana, hashish, cannabis oil) are the most frequently abused illegal substances worldwide. Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) is the main psychoactive component of Cannabis sativa plant, whereas cannabidiol (CBD) and cannabinol (CBN) are other major but no psychoactive constituents. Many studies have already been carried out on these compounds and chemical research was encouraged due to the legal implications concerning the misuse of marijuana. The aim of this study was to determine THC, CBD and CBN in a significant number of cannabis samples of Albanian origin, where cannabis is the most frequently used drug of abuse, in order to evaluate and classify them according to their cannabinoid composition. A GC-MS method was used, in order to assay cannabinoid content of hemp samples harvested at different maturation degree levels during the summer months and grown in different areas of Albania. This method can also be used for the determination of plant phenotype, the evaluation of psychoactive potency and the control of material quality. The highest cannabinoid concentrations were found in the flowers of cannabis. The THC concentrations in different locations of Albania ranged from 1.07 to 12.13%. The influence of environmental conditions on cannabinoid content is discussed. The cannabinoid content of cannabis plants were used for their profiling, and it was used for their classification, according to their geographical origin. The determined concentrations justify the fact that Albania is an area where cannabis is extensively cultivated for illegal purposes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zana Bruci
- Department of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, School of Medicine, University of Tirana, Albania.
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Mehmedic Z, Chandra S, Slade D, Denham H, Foster S, Patel AS, Ross SA, Khan IA, ElSohly MA. Potency trends of Δ9-THC and other cannabinoids in confiscated cannabis preparations from 1993 to 2008. J Forensic Sci 2011; 55:1209-17. [PMID: 20487147 DOI: 10.1111/j.1556-4029.2010.01441.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 325] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
The University of Mississippi has a contract with the National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) to carry out a variety of research activities dealing with cannabis, including the Potency Monitoring (PM) program, which provides analytical potency data on cannabis preparations confiscated in the United States. This report provides data on 46,211 samples seized and analyzed by gas chromatography-flame ionization detection (GC-FID) during 1993-2008. The data showed an upward trend in the mean Δ(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ(9)-THC) content of all confiscated cannabis preparations, which increased from 3.4% in 1993 to 8.8% in 2008. Hashish potencies did not increase consistently during this period; however, the mean yearly potency varied from 2.5-9.2% (1993-2003) to 12.0-29.3% (2004-2008). Hash oil potencies also varied considerably during this period (16.8 ± 16.3%). The increase in cannabis preparation potency is mainly due to the increase in the potency of nondomestic versus domestic samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zlatko Mehmedic
- National Center for Natural Products Research, School of Pharmacy, University of Mississippi, University, MS 38677, USA
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The differentiation of fibre- and drug type Cannabis seedlings by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry and chemometric tools. Forensic Sci Int 2010; 200:87-92. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2010.03.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2009] [Revised: 03/01/2010] [Accepted: 03/20/2010] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Balducci C, Nervegna G, Cecinato A. Evaluation of principal cannabinoids in airborne particulates. Anal Chim Acta 2009; 641:89-94. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2009.03.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2008] [Revised: 03/19/2009] [Accepted: 03/23/2009] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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13
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Application of two-dimensional gas chromatography combined with pixel-based chemometric processing for the chemical profiling of illicit drug samples. J Chromatogr A 2008; 1200:8-16. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2008.05.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2008] [Revised: 05/06/2008] [Accepted: 05/07/2008] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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