Metrology for molecular electronics

Molecular sensing: modulating molecular conduction through intermolecular interactions

We observe changes in the molecular conductivity of individual oligophenylene-vinylene (OPV) molecules due to interactions with small aromatic molecules. Fluorescence experiments were correlated with scanning tunneling microscopy measurements in order to determine the origin of the observed effect. Both nitrobenzene and 1,4-dinitrobenzene decreased fluorescence intensity and molecular conductivity, while toluene had no effect. The observed changes in the fluorescence and conduction of OPV correlate well with the electron withdrawing ability of the interacting aromatic molecules. These results demonstrate the potential usefulness of OPV as a sensor for aromatic compounds containing electron withdrawing groups.

Inelastic tunneling spectroscopy of gold-thiol and gold-thiolate interfaces in molecular junctions: the role of hydrogen

It is widely believed that when a molecule with thiol (S-H) end groups bridges a pair of gold electrodes, the S atoms bond to the gold and the thiol H atoms detach from the molecule. However, little is known regarding the details of this process, its time scale, and whether molecules with and without thiol hydrogen atoms can coexist in molecular junctions. Here, we explore theoretically how inelastic tunneling spectroscopy (IETS) can shed light on these issues. We present calculations of the geometries, low bias conductances, and IETS of propanedithiol and propanedithiolate molecular junctions with gold electrodes. We show that IETS can distinguish between junctions with molecules having no, one, or two thiol hydrogen atoms. We find that in most cases, the single-molecule junctions in the IETS experiment of Hihath et al. [Nano Lett. 8, 1673 (2008)] had no thiol H atoms, but that a molecule with a single thiol H atom may have bridged their junction occasionally. We also consider the evolution of the IETS spectrum as a gold STM tip approaches the intact S-H group at the end of a molecule bound at its other end to a second electrode. We predict the frequency of a vibrational mode of the thiol H atom to increase by a factor ~2 as the gap between the tip and molecule narrows. Therefore, IETS should be able to track the approach of the tip towards the thiol group of the molecule and detect the detachment of the thiol H atom from the molecule when it occurs.

Molecular electronic junction transport: some pathways and some ideas

When a single molecule, or a collection of molecules, is placed between two electrodes and voltage is applied, one has a molecular transport junction. We discuss such junctions, their properties, their description, and some of their applications. The discussion is qualitative rather than quantitative, and focuses on mechanism, structure/function relations, regimes and mechanisms of transport, some molecular regularities, and some substantial challenges facing the field. Because there are many regimes and mechanisms in transport junctions, we will discuss time scales, geometries, and inelastic scattering methods for trying to determine the properties of molecules within these junctions. Finally, we discuss some device applications, some outstanding problems, and some future directions.

Tunneling spectroscopy of organic monolayers and single molecules

Basic concepts in tunneling spectroscopy applied to molecular systems are presented. Junctions of the form M-A-M, M-I-A-M, and M-I-A-I'-M, where A is an active molecular layer, are considered. Inelastic electron tunneling spectroscopy (IETS) is found to be readily applied to all the above device types. It can provide both vibrational and electron spectroscopic data about the molecules comprising the A layer. In IETS there are no strong selection rules (although there are preferences) so that transitions that are normally IR, Raman, or even photon-forbidden can be observed. In the electronic transition domain, spin and Laporte forbidden transitions may be observed. Both vibrational and electronic IETS can be acquired from single molecules. The negative aspect of this seemingly ideal spectroscopic method is the thermal line width of about 5 k(B)T. This limits the useful measurement of vibrational IETS to temperatures below about 10 K. In the case of most electronic transitions where the intrinsic linewidth is much broader, useful experiments above 100 K are possible. One further limitation of electronic IETS is that it is generally limited to transitions with energy less than about 20,000 cm(-1). IETS can be identified by peaks in d(2) I/dV (2) vs bias voltage plots that occur at the same position (but not necessarily same intensity) in either bias polarity.Elastic tunneling spectroscopy is discussed in the context of processes involving molecular ionization and electron affinity states, a technique we call orbital mediated tunneling spectroscopy, or OMTS. OMTS can be applied readily to M-I-A-M and M-I-A-I'-M systems, but application to M-A-M junctions is problematic. Spectra can be obtained from single molecules. Ionization state results correlate well with UPS spectra obtained from the same systems in the same environment. Both ionization and affinity levels measured by OMTS can usually be correlated with one electron oxidation and reduction potentials for the molecular species in solution. OMTS can be identified by peaks in dI/dV vs bias voltage plots that do not occur at the same position in either bias polarity. Because of the intrinsic width of the ionization and affinity transitions, OMTS can be applied at temperatures above 500 K.This is not a comprehensive review of more than 20 years of research and there are many excellent papers that are not cited here. An absence of a citation is not a reflection on the quality of the work.

Electrochemical fabrication of metal/organic/metal junctions for molecular electronics and sensing applications

A simple electrochemical approach was used for fabricating electrode/metal nanowire/(molecule or polymer)/electrode junctions for sensing or molecular electronics applications. The procedure for fabricating these molecule-based devices involves electropolymerization of phenol or chemisorption of alkanethiols on one set of electrodes (E1) and electrodeposition of Ag metal nano/microwires on a second electrode (E2) which is ∼5 μm away from E1. Under appropriate deposition conditions, Ag nanowires grow from E2 and cross over to E1, forming a E1/(molecule or polymer)/Ag nanowire (NW)/E2 junction. The junction resistance was controlled by (1) electrodepositing polyphenol of varied densities on E1 and (2) assembling alkanethiols of different chain lengths on E1. Ag NWs at high resistance E1/polyphenol/Ag NW/E2 junctions functionalized with Pd monolayer protected clusters (MPCs) responded fast and reversibly to H(2) concentrations as low as 0.11% in a nitrogen carrier gas by a resistance decrease, likely due to volume expansion of the Pd nanoparticles, demonstrating the use of these electrochemically fabricated junctions for gas sensing applications.

Electromagnetic effects - From cell biology to medicine

In this review we compile and discuss the published plethora of cell biological effects which are ascribed to electric fields (EF), magnetic fields (MF) and electromagnetic fields (EMF). In recent years, a change in paradigm took place concerning the endogenously produced static EF of cells and tissues. Here, modern molecular biology could link the action of ion transporters and ion channels to the "electric" action of cells and tissues. Also, sensing of these mainly EF could be demonstrated in studies of cell migration and wound healing. The triggers exerted by ion concentrations and concomitant electric field gradients have been traced along signaling cascades till gene expression changes in the nucleus. Far more enigmatic is the way of action of static MF which come in most cases from outside (e.g. earth magnetic field). All systems in an organism from the molecular to the organ level are more or less in motion. Thus, in living tissue we mostly find alternating fields as well as combination of EF and MF normally in the range of extremely low-frequency EMF. Because a bewildering array of model systems and clinical devices exits in the EMF field we concentrate on cell biological findings and look for basic principles in the EF, MF and EMF action. As an outlook for future research topics, this review tries to link areas of EF, MF and EMF research to thermodynamics and quantum physics, approaches that will produce novel insights into cell biology.

Alligator clips to molecular dimensions

Techniques for fabricating nanospaced electrodes suitable for studying electron tunneling through metal-molecule-metal junctions are described. In one approach, top contacts are deposited/placed on a self-assembled monolayer or Langmuir-Blodgett film resting on a conducting substrate, the bottom contact. The molecular component serves as a permanent spacer that controls and limits the electrode separations. The top contact can be a thermally deposited metal film, liquid mercury drop, scanning probe tip, metallic wire or particle. Introduction of the top contact can greatly affect the electrical conductance of the intervening molecular film by chemical reaction, exerting pressure, or simply migrating through the organic layer. Alternatively, vacant nanogaps can be fabricated and the molecular component subsequently inserted. Strategies for constructing vacant nanogaps include mechanical break junction, electromigration, shadow mask lithography, focused ion beam deposition, chemical and electrochemical plating techniques, electron-beam lithography, and molecular and atomic rulers. The size of the nanogaps must be small enough to allow the molecule to connect both leads and large enough to keep the molecules in a relaxed and undistorted state. A significant advantage of using vacant nanogaps in the construction of metal-molecule-metal devices is that the junction can be characterized with and without the molecule in place. Any electrical artifacts introduced by the electrode fabrication process are more easily deconvoluted from the intrinsic properties of the molecule.

Current measurements in a wide dynamic range-applications in electrochemical nanotechnology

Current measurements in a wide dynamic range from low picoamperes up to a few milliamperes are usually carried by implementing logarithmic current-to-voltage converter circuits. Conductance studies in nanoscale metal | molecule | metal junctions require measurements with a high dynamic range, good accuracy and reasonable speed simultaneously. In this work we propose two novel circuit solutions which comply with these conditions: one is based on a high-accuracy, fine-tunable logarithmic current-to-voltage converter. Another circuit implements a double-output (or multiple-output) linear current-to-voltage converter, for which the problem of range-switching has been circumvented. Both circuits were applied in constructing a low-current bipotentiostat dedicated to the electrochemical formation of molecular-scale gaps, and a novel scanning tunnelling microscope preamplifier stage for current-distance spectroscopy studies.

Metal-molecule interface fluctuations

We have created self-assembled circular chains of C60 laterally bound to a layer of Ag atoms as a model system for characterizing fluctuations at a metal-molecule interface. STM measurements show that the Ag and C60 sides of the interface fluctuate independently, with frequency-dependent amplitudes of magnitude 0.1 nm at approximately 1 Hz for the Ag edge and approximately 0.01 Hz for the C60 ring. The measured frequency spectra of the metal and molecule fluctuation amplitudes will contribute characteristic signatures to transport measurements involving such interfaces.

Scanning Tunneling Microscopy and Spectroscopy Studies of 4-Methyl- 4′-(n-mercaptoalkyl)biphenyls on Au(111)-(1×1)

4-methyl-4'-(n-mercaptoalkyl)biphenyl (CH3-C6H4-C6H4-(CH2)n-SH, n=3-6, BPn) monolayers assembled on Au(111)-(1x1) in 1,3,5,-trimethylbenzene (TMB) at various temperatures are studied by scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) and scanning tunneling spectroscopy (STS). High resolution STM images reveal that BP3 and BP5 form a (sqrt 3x2sqrt 3) repeating motif superimposed on a temperature-dependent Moire pattern. BP4 and BP6 adlayers are characterized by a coexisting (2sqrt 3x5sqrt 3) majority phase and a temperature-dependent (3xpsqrt 3) minority phase. Assembly at 60 degrees C or 90 degrees C leads to p=5. Compression of the adlayer was found at higher temperatures. Combined with high-resolution structure experiments, the electronic characteristics of BP3 and BP4 self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) were studied by monitoring current-distance (iT-Deltaz) and current-voltage (iT-Ebias) characteristics in TMB employing a gold STM tip|BPn|Au(111)-(1x1) configuration. The semilogarithmic (iT-Deltaz) plots yielded three linear regions in the range 10 pA<or=iT<or=20 microA, which were attributed to the different positions of the STM tip with respect to the molecular adlayer (I outside, II in contact with and/or within the adlayer, and III just before the formation of Au-Au nanocontacts). The effective decay constants kappaeff and the corresponding barrier heights phi(eff) decrease with decreasing tip-substrate distance. The iT-Ebias curves at low bias voltages are represented by the Simmons tunneling model. Based on measurements in the high current limit, the electric field strength of the dielectric breakdown was estimated to range between |0.85+/-0.05|x10(9) V m-1 and |1.5+/-0.1|x10(9) V m-1.

Effects of hydration on molecular junction transport

The study of charge transport through increasingly complex small molecules will benefit from a detailed understanding of how contaminants from the environment affect molecular conduction. This should provide a clearer picture of the electronic characteristics of molecules by eliminating interference from adsorbed species. Here we use magnetically assembled microsphere junctions incorporating thiol monolayers to provide insight into changing electron transport characteristics resulting from exposure to air. Using this technique, current-voltage analysis and inelastic electron tunnelling spectroscopy (IETS) demonstrate that the primary interaction affecting molecular conduction is rapid hydration at the gold-sulphur contacts. We use IETS to present evidence for changing mechanisms of charge transport as a result of this interaction. The detrimental effects on molecular conduction discussed here are important for understanding electron transport through gold-thiol molecular junctions once exposed to atmospheric conditions.