A galactose polyacrylate-based hydrogel scaffold for the detection of cholera toxin and staphylococcal enterotoxin B in a sandwich immunoassay format

Detecting Biothreat Agents: From Current Diagnostics to Developing Sensor Technologies

Although a fundamental understanding of the pathogenicity of most biothreat agents has been elucidated and available treatments have increased substantially over the past decades, they still represent a significant public health threat in this age of (bio)terrorism, indiscriminate warfare, pollution, climate change, unchecked population growth, and globalization. The key step to almost all prevention, protection, prophylaxis, post-exposure treatment, and mitigation of any bioagent is early detection. Here, we review available methods for detecting bioagents including pathogenic bacteria and viruses along with their toxins. An introduction placing this subject in the historical context of previous naturally occurring outbreaks and efforts to weaponize selected agents is first provided along with definitions and relevant considerations. An overview of the detection technologies that find use in this endeavor along with how they provide data or transduce signal within a sensing configuration follows. Current "gold" standards for biothreat detection/diagnostics along with a listing of relevant FDA approved in vitro diagnostic devices is then discussed to provide an overview of the current state of the art. Given the 2014 outbreak of Ebola virus in Western Africa and the recent 2016 spread of Zika virus in the Americas, discussion of what constitutes a public health emergency and how new in vitro diagnostic devices are authorized for emergency use in the U.S. are also included. The majority of the Review is then subdivided around the sensing of bacterial, viral, and toxin biothreats with each including an overview of the major agents in that class, a detailed cross-section of different sensing methods in development based on assay format or analytical technique, and some discussion of related microfluidic lab-on-a-chip/point-of-care devices. Finally, an outlook is given on how this field will develop from the perspective of the biosensing technology itself and the new emerging threats they may face.

Parallel, open-channel lateral flow (immuno) assay substrate based on capillary-channeled polymer films

Presented here is a novel implementation of polypropylene capillary-channeled polymer (C-CP) films, functionalized for bioaffinity separations and implemented as a platform for lateral flow (immuno) assays.

A ready-to-use, versatile, multiplex-able three-dimensional scaffold-based immunoassay chip for high throughput hepatotoxicity evaluation

Hydrogel as three-dimensional (3D) substrate has been employed in miniaturized high throughput protein detection platforms to increase the number of effective antibodies and signal augmentation. However, the high water content of the hydrogel can dilute samples and create barrier to mass transfer, limiting hydrogel height to several microns in most platforms. Moreover, these platforms cannot achieve widespread use in common laboratories as they usually rely heavily on expensive robotic liquid handlers and custom-built components. Here we developed a ready-to-use, easy to store and handle, versatile and multiplex-able 3D scaffold-based immunoassay chip (3D immunoChip) possible for high throughput protein quantification using bench-top equipment in common laboratories. Sample dilution, mass transfer, signal scattering and storage problems can be avoided by using dry scaffolds that regain transparency upon rehydration. When combined with hydrophilic-hydrophobic patterned reagent loading slides, manual high throughput handling of samples can be achieved. As these micro-scaffolds are patterned without barriers in between, simultaneous and effortless washing of all the reaction zones is possible in a Petri dish. Such features aid the 3D immunoChip in saving up to 100 times reagent and about 6 times labour. The 3D immunoChip is able to detect albumin (ALB), as a model analyte, from 5 ng mL(-1) to 1000 ng mL(-1), making it comparable to the commercialized ELISA kit based on a 96-well plate (0.22-400 ng mL(-1)). This thus enables the 3D immunoChip to directly detect ALB secreted by HepaRG cells cultured in a 3D cell culture array chip for high throughput drug hepatotoxicity evaluation, which could potentially accelerate drug screening.

Quantitative detection of Vibrio cholera toxin by real-time and dynamic cytotoxicity monitoring

We report here the quantitative detection of Vibrio cholerae toxin (CT) in isolates and stool specimens by dynamic monitoring of the full course of CT-mediated cytotoxicity in a real-time cell analysis (RTCA) system. Four cell lines, including Y-1 mouse adrenal tumor cells, Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells, small intestine epithelial (FHs74Int) cells, and mouse adrenal gland (PC12-Adh) cells, were evaluated for their suitability for CT-induced cytotoxicity testing. Among them, the Y-1 line was demonstrated to be the most sensitive for CT-mediated cytotoxicity, with limits of detection of 7.0 pg/ml for purified CT and 0.11 ng/ml for spiked CT in pooled negative stool specimens. No CT-mediated cytotoxicity was observed for nontoxigenic V. cholerae, non-V. cholerae species, or non-V. cholerae enterotoxins. The CT-RTCA assay was further validated with 100 stool specimens consecutively collected from patients with diarrhea and 200 V. cholerae isolates recovered from patients and the environment, in comparison to a reference using three detection methods. The CT-RTCA assay had sensitivities and specificities of 97.5% and 100.0%, respectively, for V. cholerae isolates and 90.0% and 97.2% for stool specimens. For stool specimens spiked with CT concentrations ranging from 3.5 pg/ml to 1.8 ng/ml, the inoculation-to-detection time was 1.12 ± 0.38 h, and the values were inversely correlated with CT concentrations (ρ = -1; P = 0.01). The results indicate that the CT-RTCA assay with the Y-1 cell line provides a rapid and sensitive tool for the quantitative detection of CT activities in clinical specimens.

A novel electrochemical immunosensor based on magnetosomes for detection of staphylococcal enterotoxin B in milk

In this paper, a novel electrochemical immunosensor to detect staphylococcal enterotoxin B based on bio-magnetosomes, polyaniline nano-gold composite and 1,2-dimethyl-3-butylimidazolium hexafluorophosphate ionic liquid, was developed, and found to exhibit high sensitivity and stability. The specific antibody to staphylococcal enterotoxin B conjugated with the magnetosomes showed rapid immunoreactions and good dispersion, which contributed to the formation of a nanostructurally smooth and dense film on the surface of a gold electrode. Polyaniline nano-gold composite and 1,2-dimethyl-3-butylimidazolium hexafluorophosphate ionic liquid were used to modify the electrode as mediators to improve the electron transfer and offer an excellent biocompatible microenvironment for the antibody to retain its activity to enhance the response of the electrochemical sensor. Under optimal conditions, the developed immunosensor showed a good linear response in the range from 0.05 to 5 ng/mL (R(2)=0.9957) with a detection limit as low as 0.017 ng/mL, compared with the one without magnetosomes (0.05-5 ng/mL, 0.033 ng/mL), this developed immunosensor showed a wider response range and a reduced detection limit. And a good specificity with little adsorption to staphylococcal enterotoxin A, C and Na(+), K(+), Ca(2+) was obtained. Moreover, the immunosensor exhibited a good long-time stability at 4 °C reaching up to 60 days, which showed a relatively long working life. Meanwhile the immunosensor could be regenerated four times using NaOH elution. The sensor also displayed a good repeatability with a relative standard deviation of 5.02% for staphylococcal enterotoxin B detection (1 ng/mL, n=9). Furthermore, high recoveries in milk samples from 81% to 118% were achieved and successfully applied to milk sample detection. The obtained results demonstrate that the developed electrochemical immunosensor is a promising tool for the detection of staphylococcal enterotoxin B in food.

Three-dimensional hydrogel structures as optical sensor arrays, for the detection of specific DNA sequences

The fabrication and characterization of surface-attached PEG-diacrylate hydrogel structures and their application as sensing platforms for the detection of specific target sequences are reported. Hydrogel structures were formed by a photopolymerization process, using substrate-bound Eosin Y molecules for the production of free radicals. We have demonstrated that this fabrication process allows for control over hydrogel growth down to the micrometer scale. Confocal imaging revealed relatively large pore structures for 25% (v/v) PEG-diacrylate hydrogels, which appear to lie in tightly packed layers. Our data suggest that these pore structures decrease in size for hydrogels with increasing levels of PEG-diacrylate. Surface coverage values calculated for hydrogels immobilized with 21-mer DNA probe sequences were significantly higher compared to those previously reported for 2- and 3-dimensional sensing platforms, on the order of 10(16)molecules cm(-2). Used as sensing platforms in DNA hybridization assays, a detection limit of 3.9 nM was achieved for hybridization reactions between 21-mer probe and target sequences. The ability of these hydrogel sensing platforms to discriminate between wild-type and mutant allele sequences was also demonstrated, down to target concentrations of 1-2 nM. A reduction in the hybridization time down to a period of 15 min was also achieved, while still maintaining confident results, demonstrating the potential for future integration of these sensing platforms within Lab-on-Chip or diagnostic devices.

Simple one-step process for immobilization of biomolecules on polymer substrates based on surface-attached polymer networks

For the miniaturization of biological assays, especially for the fabrication of microarrays, immobilization of biomolecules at the surfaces of the chips is the decisive factor. Accordingly, a variety of binding techniques have been developed over the years to immobilize DNA or proteins onto such substrates. Most of them require rather complex fabrication processes and sophisticated surface chemistry. Here, a comparatively simple immobilization technique is presented, which is based on the local generation of small spots of surface attached polymer networks. Immobilization is achieved in a one-step procedure: probe molecules are mixed with a photoactive copolymer in aqueous buffer, spotted onto a solid support, and cross-linked as well as bound to the substrate during brief flood exposure to UV light. The described procedure permits spatially confined surface functionalization and allows reliable binding of biological species to conventional substrates such as glass microscope slides as well as various types of plastic substrates with comparable performance. The latter also permits immobilization on structured, thermoformed substrates resulting in an all-plastic biochip platform, which is simple and cheap and seems to be promising for a variety of microdiagnostic applications.

EIS microfluidic chips for flow immunoassay and ultrasensitive cholera toxin detection

A flow-injection impedimetric immunosensor for the sensitive, direct and label-free detection of cholera toxin is reported. A limit of detection smaller than 10 pM was achieved, a value thousands of times lower than the lethal dose. The developed chips fulfil the requirement of low cost and quick reply of the assay and are expected to enable field screening, prompt diagnosis and medical intervention without the need of specialized personnel and expensive equipment, a perspective of special relevance for use in developing countries. Since the chip layout includes two sensing areas each one with a 2 × 2 sensor array, our biochips can allow statistical or (alternatively) multiplex analysis of biorecognition events between antibodies immobilized on each working electrode and different antigens flowing into the chamber.

Effect of physicochemical anomalies of soda-lime silicate slides on biomolecule immobilization

Glass microscope slides are considered by many as the substrate of choice for microarray manufacturing due to their amenability to various surface chemistry modifications. The use of silanes to attach various functional groups onto glass slides has provided a versatile tool for the covalent immobilization of many diverse biomolecules of interest. We recently noted a dramatic reduction in biomolecule immobilization efficiency on standard microscope slides prepared using a well-characterized silanization method. A survey of commercial soda-lime slides yielded the surprising result that slides purchased prior to 2008 had superior immobilization efficiencies when compared to those purchased after 2008. Characterization of the slides by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), contact angle measurements, and atomic force microscopy (AFM), revealed a significant correlation (R > 0.9) between magnesium content, surface roughness, and bioimmobilization efficiency. High performance slides had higher magnesium content and higher root-mean-square (rms) roughness (P < 0.005) than slides with lower bioimmobilization efficiencies. Although the exact mechanism of how magnesium content and surface roughness affect silane deposition has not yet been defined, we show that recent changes in the chemical and physical properties of commercial soda-lime slides affect the ability of these slides to be covalently modified.

Reduction of Non-Specific Protein Adsorption Using Poly(ethylene) Glycol (PEG) Modified Polyacrylate Hydrogels In Immunoassays for Staphylococcal Enterotoxin B Detection

Three PEG molecules (PEG-methacrylate, -diacrylate and -dimethacrylate) were incorporated into galactose-based polyacrylate hydrogels and their relative abilities to reduce non-specific protein adsorption in immunoassays were determined. Highly crosslinked hydrogels containing amine-terminated functionalities were formed and used to covalently attach antibodies specific for staphylococcal enterotoxin B (SEB). Patterned arrays of immobilized antibodies in the PEG-modified hydrogels were created with a PDMS template containing micro-channels for use in sandwich immunoassays to detect SEB. Different concentrations of the toxin were applied to the hydrogel arrays, followed with a Cy3-labeled tracer antibody specific for the two toxins. Fluorescence laser scanning confocal microscopy of the tracer molecules provided both qualitative and quantitative measurements on the detection sensitivity and the reduction in non-specific binding as a result of PEG incorporation. Results showed the PEG-modified hydrogel significantly reduced non-specific protein binding with a detection limit for SEB of 1 ng/mL. Fluorescence signals showed a 10-fold decrease in the non-specific binding and a 6-fold increase in specific binding of SEB.

Reproducibility of hydrogel slides in on-chip immunoassays with respect to scanning mode, spot circularity, and data filtering

The reproducibility of three-dimensional hydrogel surfaces based on polyurethane, poly(vinyl alcohol), and polyacrylamide (HydroGel) with respect to scanning mode (confocal vs nonconfocal), alignment (circular vs irregular), and influence of fluorescent background was investigated. It is demonstrated that, if even probe spots are provided, fluorescence intensities measured at the same photomultiplier tube gain are similar for confocal and nonconfocal scanning modes. Uneven probe spots, however, cause reduced fluorescence with confocal scanners, greater spot-to-spot variation, and higher degrees of intra- and interexperimental variability (%CV among three experiments). By using irregular instead of circular spot alignment, reproducibility (%CV) is improved for good- and bad-quality spots, in the latter case by up to three times as much. In addition, circularity can be used together with the mean-median correlation of pixel intensities as a quality measure.