25,000-fold pre-concentration in a single step with liquid-phase microextraction

Application of Hollow Fibre-Liquid Phase Microextraction Technique for Isolation and Pre-Concentration of Pharmaceuticals in Water

In this article, a comprehensive review of applications of the hollow fibre-liquid phase microextraction (HF-LPME) for the isolation and pre-concentration of pharmaceuticals in water samples is presented. HF-LPME is simple, affordable, selective, and sensitive with high enrichment factors of up to 27,000-fold reported for pharmaceutical analysis. Both configurations (two- and three-phase extraction systems) of HF-LPME have been applied in the extraction of pharmaceuticals from water, with the three-phase system being more prominent. When compared to most common sample preparation techniques such as solid phase extraction, HF-LPME is a greener analytical chemistry process due to reduced solvent consumption, miniaturization, and the ability to automate. However, the automation comes at an added cost related to instrumental set-up, but a reduced cost is associated with lower reagent consumption as well as shortened overall workload and time. Currently, many researchers are investigating ionic liquids and deep eutectic solvents as environmentally friendly chemicals that could lead to full classification of HF-LPME as a green analytical procedure.

Ultrasound-assisted liquid–liquid spray extraction for the determination of multi-class trace organic compounds in high-volume water samples

A premier analytical method for the determination of multi-class trace organic compounds in high-volume water matrices.

Sensitive determination of psychotropic drugs in urine samples using continuous liquid-phase microextraction with an extraction solvent lighter than water

A novel extraction vessel was employed, for the first time, in continuous liquid-phase microextraction (CLPME) with an extraction solvent lighter than water for the extraction of psychotropic drugs from urine samples.

Microextraction techniques coupled to liquid chromatography with mass spectrometry for the determination of organic micropollutants in environmental water samples

Until recently, sample preparation was carried out using traditional techniques, such as liquid–liquid extraction (LLE), that use large volumes of organic solvents. Solid-phase extraction (SPE) uses much less solvent than LLE, although the volume can still be significant. These preparation methods are expensive, time-consuming and environmentally unfriendly. Recently, a great effort has been made to develop new analytical methodologies able to perform direct analyses using miniaturised equipment, thereby achieving high enrichment factors, minimising solvent consumption and reducing waste. These microextraction techniques improve the performance during sample preparation, particularly in complex water environmental samples, such as wastewaters, surface and ground waters, tap waters, sea and river waters. Liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (LC/MS/MS) and time-of-flight mass spectrometric (TOF/MS) techniques can be used when analysing a broad range of organic micropollutants. Before separating and detecting these compounds in environmental samples, the target analytes must be extracted and pre-concentrated to make them detectable. In this work, we review the most recent applications of microextraction preparation techniques in different water environmental matrices to determine organic micropollutants: solid-phase microextraction SPME, in-tube solid-phase microextraction (IT-SPME), stir bar sorptive extraction (SBSE) and liquid-phase microextraction (LPME). Several groups of compounds are considered organic micropollutants because these are being released continuously into the environment. Many of these compounds are considered emerging contaminants. These analytes are generally compounds that are not covered by the existing regulations and are now detected more frequently in different environmental compartments. Pharmaceuticals, surfactants, personal care products and other chemicals are considered micropollutants. These compounds must be monitored because, although they are detected in low concentrations, they might be harmful toward ecosystems.

Growth inhibition and coordinated physiological regulation of zebrafish (Danio rerio) embryos upon sublethal exposure to antidepressant amitriptyline

Amitriptyline is a tricyclic antidepressant used for decades. It is present at low detectable concentrations in the aquatic environment, but relative few studies have focused on its ecotoxicological effects on non-target aquatic animals. The present study conducted an acute toxicity test of waterborne amitriptyline exposure using zebrafish (Danio rerio) embryos 4 to 124 h-post-fertilization. Time-dependent lethal concentrations were firstly determined and at mg/L levels. Effects of amitriptyline on zebrafish embryos were then evaluated under amitriptyline exposure at sublethal concentrations of 1, 10, 100 ng/L, 1, 10, 100 μg/L and 1mg/L. Our results showed that amitriptyline significantly reduced the hatching time and body length of embryos after exposure in a concentration-dependent manner. Our study also revealed that the exposure evoked a coordinated modulation of physiological and biochemical parameters in exposed zebrafish embryos, including alterations of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) level, oxidative stress and antioxidant parameters, as well as nitric oxide (NO) production and total nitric oxide synthase (TNOS) activity. A U-shaped concentration-dependent response curve was observed in ACTH level in response to amitriptyline exposure. However, both U-shaped and inversed U-shaped curves were indicated in the responses of antioxidant parameters, including total antioxidant capacity, antioxidant enzyme activities (catalase, superoxide dismutase and peroxidase), glutathione content and glutathione reductase activity. Correspondingly, hydroxyl radical formation and lipid peroxidation indices changed in similar U-shaped concentration-dependent patterns, which together the results of antioxidant parameters suggested induction of oxidative stress in embryos exposed to amitriptyline at high concentrations. Moreover, NO production and TNOS activity were both significantly affected by amitriptyline exposure. Notably, significant correlations between these measured parameters were revealed, which suggested a dynamic adaptation process and coordinated regulation of multiple physiological systems in fish embryos to amitriptyline treatment. Furthermore, our study demonstrated that the effective concentrations of amitriptyline for measured parameters in zebrafish embryos were as low as 10 ng/L, and thus revealed the potential risk of amitriptyline and other antidepressants to aquatic life.

Anaerobic treatment of sewage sludge containing selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors

The selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors citalopram, sertraline, paroxetine, fluvoxamine and fluoxetine have been investigated in 10 l anaerobic lab-scale digesters with continuous stirring and mesophilic conditions at 37 °C to investigate whether they would be reduced or accumulated in sewage sludge depending on whether the bacteria present were able to use the SSRIs as a carbon source or not. The total SSRI concentration had a significant reduction in concentration during the anaerobic treatment process from theoretically 0.58 mg/l to 0.21 mg/l after 17 days. However, large differences in the reduction of the different compounds were found. Paroxetine and citalopram were found to be almost completely reduced at day 24 with reductions of 85% (citalopram) and 98% (paroxetine). Reductions of 32% (fluoxetine), 53% (fluvoxamine) and 38% (sertraline) indicate that these three compounds have a higher potential for accumulation. None metabolites of these compounds were found in the samples.

Considerations on the application of miniaturized sample preparation approaches for the analysis of organic compounds in environmental matrices

The miniaturization and improvement of sample preparation is a challenge that has been fulfilled up to a point in many fields of analytical chemistry. Particularly, the hyphenation of microextraction with advanced analytical techniques has allowed the monitoring of target analytes in a vast variety of environmental samples. Several benefits can be obtained when miniaturized techniques such as solid-phase microextraction (SPME) or liquid-phase microextraction (LPME) are applied, specifically, their easiness, rapidity and capability to separate and pre-concentrate target analytes with a negligible consumption of organic solvents. In spite of the great acceptance that these green sample preparation techniques have in environmental research, their full implementation has not been achieved or even attempted in some relevant environmental matrices. In this work, a critical review of the applications of LPME and SPME techniques to isolate and pre-concentrate traces of organic pollutants is provided. In addition, the influence of the environmental matrix on the effectiveness of LPME and SPME for isolating the target organic pollutants is addressed. Finally, unsolved issues that may hinder the application of these techniques for the extraction of dissolved organic matter from environmental samples and some suggestions for developing novel and less selective enrichment and isolation procedures for natural organic matter on the basis of SPME and LPME are included.

Hollow fiber supported liquid-phase microextraction using ionic liquid as extractant for preconcentration of benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and xylenes from water sample with gas chromatography-hydrogen flame ionization detection

A novel method has been developed for the analysis of benzene, toluene, ethyl-benzene, and o-, m- and p-xylenes (BTEXs) in water using hollow fiber supported liquid-phase microextraction (HF-LPME) followed by gas chromatography-hydrogen flame ionization detection. Ionic liquid 1-butyl-3-methy-limidazolium hexafluorophosphate ([BMIM][PF(6)]) was acted as the extractant for extraction and preconcentration of BTEXs from aqueous samples, and a porous-walled polypropylene hollow fiber was utilized to stabilize and protect [BMIM][PF(6)] during the extraction process. Various parameters that affect extraction efficiency were investigated in detail, and the optimized experimental conditions were as follows: 8 μL of [BMIM][PF(6)] as extraction solvent for the target analytes in 20 mL of sample solution, 30 min of extraction time, a stirring rate of 1400 rpm and 15% NaCl (w/v) in aqueous sample at 25°C (ambient temperature). The recovery was found to be 90.0-111.5% with RSD (n=5) of 1.3-5.4%, and the detection limits (S/N=3) were in the range of 2.7-4.0 μg/L. The proposed method was simple, cheap, rapid, sensitive and environmentally benign, and could act as an alternative to techniques for BTEXs analysis with expensive instrumentations.

Electromembrane extraction: a new technique for accelerating bioanalytical sample preparation

The recent societal requirements to explore more environmentaly friendly solutions in the field of sample preparation have gained increasing focus during recent years. A reduction in the consumption of hazardous organic solvent owing to environmental and cost perspectives, small amounts of sample available and time reduction, have been major incentives for scientists to miniaturize existing sample preparation methods. Some of these challenges were addressed by the introduction of electromembrane extraction (EME), a totally new extraction principle where a potential difference is applied across a thin organic membrane immobilized in the pores in the wall of a porous polypropylene membrane. The potential difference is utilized to extract charged analytes of interest from the sample, across the organic membrane, and into an aqueous acceptor solution present inside the lumen of the hollow fiber. This article focuses on the potential of EME in bioanalysis, including discussions of EME performance.

Electro membrane extraction combined with capillary electrophoresis for the determination of amlodipine enantiomers in biological samples

Electro membrane extraction as a new microextraction method was applied for the extraction of amlodipine (AM) enantiomers from biological samples. During the extraction time of 15  min, AM enantiomers migrated from a 3  mL sample solution, through a supported liquid membrane into a 20  μL acceptor solution presented inside the lumen of the hollow fiber. The driving force of the extraction was 200  V potential, with the negative electrode in the acceptor solution and the positive electrode in the sample solution. 2-Nitro phenyl octylether was used as the supported liquid membrane. Using 10  mM HCl as background electrolyte in the sample and acceptor solution, enrichment up to 124 times was achieved. Then, the extract was analyzed using CD modified CE method for separation of AM enantiomers. Best results were achieved using a phosphate running buffer (100  mM, pH 2.0) containing 5  mM hydroxypropyl-α-CD. The range of quantitation for both enantiomers was 10-500  ng/mL. Intra- and interday RSD (n=6) were less than 14%. The limits of quantitation and detection for both enantiomers were 10 and 3  ng/mL respectively. Finally, this procedure was applied to determine the concentration of AM enantiomers in plasma and urine samples.

Recent advances in enhancing the sensitivity of electrophoresis and electrochromatography in capillaries and microchips (2008-2010)

Capillary electrophoresis has been alive for over two decades now; yet, its sensitivity is still regarded as being inferior to that of more traditional methods of separation such as HPLC. As such, it is unsurprising that overcoming this issue still generates much scientific interest. This review continues to update this series of reviews, first published in Electrophoresis in 2007, with an update published in 2009 and covers material published through to June 2010. It includes developments in the fields of stacking, covering all methods from field-amplified sample stacking and large volume sample stacking, through to ITP, dynamic pH junction and sweeping. Attention is also given to on-line or in-line extraction methods that have been used for electrophoresis.

Current approaches to trace analysis of pharmaceuticals and personal care products in the environment

A large number of xenobiotics including pharmaceuticals and personal care products are continuously released into the environment. Effluents from sewage treatment plants are well known to be the major source for introduction of pharmaceuticals and personal care products into the aquatic system. In recent years, reliable methods have been established for residue analysis of these pollutants down to low ng/L levels. In this review, the different approaches to their trace determination are reviewed with special attention being paid to sample preparation procedures, state-of-the-art high-performance separation methods hyphenated with mass spectrometry, and immunochemical methods.

The measurement of ecstasy in human hair by triple phase directly suspended droplet microextraction prior to HPLC-DAD analysis

New pre-concentration technique, triple phase suspended droplet microextraction (SD-LPME) and liquid chromatography-photodiode array detection was applied to determine ecstasy, MDMA (3,4-methylendioxy-N-methylamphetamine) in hair samples. In this research MDMA in hair was digested and after treatment extracted. The effective parameters were investigated and method was evaluated. Under the optimal conditions, the MDMA was enriched by factor 98.11. Linearity (r=0.9921), was obtained in the range of 10-15,000 ng mL(-1) and detection limit was 0.1 ng mL(-1).

Depletion of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors during sewage sludge composting

Sewage and sewage sludge is known to contain pharmaceuticals, and since sewage sludge is often used as fertilizer within agriculture, the reduction of the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) Citalopram, Sertraline, Paroxetine, Fluvoxamine and Fluoxetine during composting has been investigated. Sewage sludge was spiked with the SSRIs before the composting experiment started, and the concentration of the SSRIs in the sludge during a 21 day composting period was measured by liquid phase microextraction (LPME) and high-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. All the SSRIs had a significant decrease in concentration during the composting process. The highest reduction rates were measured for Fluoxetine and Paroxetine and the lowest for Citalopram. In addition three out of four known SSRI metabolites were found in all the samples, and two of them showed a significant increase in concentration during the composting period.

Liquid-phase microextraction with porous hollow fibers, a miniaturized and highly flexible format for liquid–liquid extraction

Since 1999, substantial research has been devoted to the development of liquid-phase microextraction (LPME) based on porous hollow fibers. With this technology, target analytes are extracted from aqueous samples, through a thin supported liquid membrane (SLM) sustained in the pores in the wall of a porous hollow fiber, and further into a microL volume of acceptor solution placed inside the lumen of the hollow fiber. After extraction, the acceptor solution is directly subjected to a final chemical analysis by liquid chromatography (HPLC), gas chromatography (GC), capillary electrophoresis (CE), or mass spectrometry (MS). In this review, LPME will be discussed with focus on extraction principles, historical development, fundamental theory, and performance. Also, major applications have been compiled, and recent forefront developments will be discussed.