Difficult pain assessment and lack of clinician knowledge are ongoing barriers to effective pain management in children with cognitive impairment

Pain care for children with cognitive impairment: A parent-nurse partnership

PURPOSE

To explore nurses' experiences of establishing partnerships with parents for pain care of hospitalized children with cognitive impairment (CI) and identify related facilitators and barriers.

DESIGN AND METHODS

In this qualitative, interpretive descriptive study, individual semi-structured interviews were conducted via videoconferencing with pediatric nurses from inpatient wards in a Canadian pediatric quaternary hospital. Verbatim transcripts were analyzed using an inductive, data-driven thematic analysis approach.

RESULTS

Eleven nurses were interviewed. The overarching theme was Assessing Pain as an Outsider: "A Complete Guessing Game". Seven major themes were identified.: Relying on Parent Expertise for Pain Assessment, Brainstorming with Parents for Pain Treatment, Supporting Parents as Advocates for Pain Care, Individualizing Pain Care with Parents, Involving the Child in Pain Care: A Spectrum, Barriers to Partnership in Pain Care and Facilitators to Partnership in Pain Care.

CONCLUSIONS

Nurses described the many ways they involve parents as partners in pain care. However, nurses shared strong feelings of uncertainty associated with pain care in children with CI. Consequently, nurses felt the need to rely on parents for appropriately assessing and treating pain in children with CI. Findings highlighted the practice and education gaps that may contribute to nurses' uncertainty and reliance on parents.

PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS

By identifying related practice and education gaps, healthcare organizations can implement strategies to further support nurses in establishing partnerships and potentially optimize pain care practices.

Multicenter study. Nursing professionals' perception of training needs in pain assessment in pediatric patients with cognitive dysfunction

INTRODUCTION

Pediatric patients with cognitive dysfunction are at greater risk of pain than typically developing children. Pain assessment in these patients is complex and could generate uncertainty in health professionals about what the key aspects are.

AIM

To determine the training needs perceived by nursing professionals regarding acute pain assessment in pediatric patients with cognitive dysfunction.

METHODS

A descriptive, cross-sectional, and multicenter study was performed using a survey addressed to nursing professionals who work in pediatrics during the months of August and September 2022.

RESULTS

163 responses were obtained. Most of the professionals who responded were female (92.6%, n = 151), with a mean age of 38.98 ± 10.40 years. The most frequent work unit was the pediatric intensive care unit (PICU), in 36% (n = 58). Most of the participants reported not having previously received training on pain assessment in pediatric patients with cognitive disabilities (85.9%, n = 139). However, 70.4% (n = 114) considered it "very necessary" for the development of their work to receive specific training on this topic. Knowing how to assess acute pain in this population (85.3%, n = 139) and knowing the clinical and behavioral manifestations of pain in this type of patient (84.7%, n = 138) were the aspects that obtained higher scores.

CONCLUSION

This research notes more than 90% of participants consider "quite necessary" and "strong necessary" to be training in pediatric cognitive dysfunction patients pain assessment. Furthermore, work experience, academic education and to be pediatric specialist obtain statistical significance data.

Individualized Numeric Rating Scale to Assess Pain in Critically Ill Children With Neurodevelopmental Disabilities

BACKGROUND

Pain is a significant burden for children with neurodevelopmental disabilities but is difficult for clinicians to identify. No pain assessment tools for children with neurodevelopmental disabilities have been validated for use in pediatric intensive care units. The Individualized Numeric Rating Scale (INRS) is an adapted 0-to-10 rating that includes parents' input on their child's pain indicators.

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate the reliability, validity, and feasibility and acceptability of use of the INRS for assessing pain in critically ill children with neurodevelopmental disabilities.

METHODS

This observational study enrolled critically ill patients with neurodevelopmental disabilities aged 3 to 17 years in 2 pediatric intensive care units at a children's hospital using a prospective repeated-measures cohort design. Structured parent interviews were used to populate each patient's INRS. Bedside nurses assessed pain using the INRS throughout the study. The research team completed independent INRS ratings using video clips. Participating parents and nurses completed feasibility and acceptability surveys. Psychometric properties of the INRS and survey responses were evaluated with appropriate statistical methods.

RESULTS

For 481 paired INRS pain ratings in 34 patients, interrater reliability between nurse and research team ratings was moderate (weighted κ = 0.56). Parents said that creating the INRS was easy, made them feel more involved in care, and helped them communicate with nurses.

CONCLUSIONS

The INRS has adequate measurement properties for assessing pain in critically ill children with neurodevelopmental disabilities. It furthers goals of patient- and family-centered care but may have implementation barriers.

Being a child with intellectual disabilities in hospital: The need for an individualised approach to care

BACKGROUND

There is limited qualitative research focussed specifically on what it is like for children and young people with intellectual disabilities coming into hospital, with much of the evidence-base being about those with Autism Spectrum Condition or adults with intellectual disabilities.

AIM

To share rich detail of the emotional and physical impact on children and young people with intellectual disabilities of attending hospital, from their own and their parent's perspective.

METHODS

Talking Mats interviews, sticker survey and photography with children and young people with intellectual disabilities, and in-depth interviews, hospital diaries and photography with their parents.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

The multiple and compounding layers of complexity surrounding hospital care of children and young people with intellectual disabilities resulted in challenges associated with loss of familiarity and routine, undergoing procedures, managing sensory overload, managing pain and having a lack of safety awareness. An individualised approach to their care is needed.

Les pratiques exemplaires pour l’évaluation et le traitement de la douleur chez les enfants

L’évaluation et le traitement de la douleur sont des aspects essentiels des soins pédiatriques. L’évaluation de la douleur adaptée au développement représente une première étape importante pour en optimiser la prise en charge. L’autoévaluation de la douleur est à prioriser. Si c’est impossible, des outils appropriés d’évaluation du comportement, adaptés au développement, doivent être utilisés. Des directives et stratégies de prise en charge et de prévention de la douleur aiguë, qui combinent des approches physiques, psychologiques et pharmacologiques, doivent être accessibles dans tous les milieux de soins. Le meilleur traitement de la douleur chronique fait appel à une combinaison de modalités thérapeutiques et de counseling, dans l’objectif premier d’obtenir une amélioration fonctionnelle. La planification et la mise en œuvre de stratégies de prise en charge de la douleur chez les enfants doivent toujours être personnalisées et axées sur la famille.

Best practices in pain assessment and management for children

Pain assessment and management are essential components of paediatric care. Developmentally appropriate pain assessment is an important first step in optimizing pain management. Self-reported pain should be prioritized. Alternatively, developmentally appropriate behavioural tools should be used. Acute pain management and prevention guidelines and strategies that combine physical, psychological, and pharmacological approaches should be accessible in all health care settings. Chronic pain is best managed using combined treatment modalities and counselling, with the primary goal of attaining functional improvement. The planning and implementation of pain management strategies for children should always be personalized and family-centred.

The Arabic Version of the Faces Pain Scale-Revised: Cultural Adaptation, Validity, and Reliability Properties When Used with Children and Adolescents

The Faces Pain Scale-Revised (FPS-R) is widely used to assess pain intensity in young people. The aims of this research were to study the convergent and discriminant validity and reliability properties of a culturally adapted version of the FPS-R for its use with Arabic-speaking individuals. The sample consisted of 292 students living in Lebanon. They were interviewed online, asked to imagine themselves in one of two given situations based on their age (8-12 and 13-18 years old), and then asked rate the intensity of pain they would experience using the FPS-R-Arabic and a Numerical Rating Scale (NRS-11-Arabic). They were also asked to respond to the Pain Catastrophizing Scale (PCS-C-Arabic). Two weeks later, participants were asked to repeat the same procedure. The data showed strong associations between the scores of the FPS-R-Arabic and NRS-11-Arabic (r = 0.72; p < 0.001), which were higher than the associations of the scores of the FPS-Arabic with the PCS-C-Arabic scores (z = 7.36, p < 0.001). The associations between the FPS-R-Arabic scores on the two measurements were also strong (r = 0.76; p < 0.001). The findings support the convergent and discriminant validity and reliability of the FPS-R-Arabic scores when used to measure pain intensity in young people aged 8 to 18 years old.

Paediatricians' Views on Pain in Children with Profound Intellectual and Multiple Disabilities

Pain is a frequent issue in children with profound intellectual and multiple disabilities (PIMD). Its identification and treatment can prove highly challenging for primary care physicians, mainly because of the children’s limited communication abilities. We used an online survey to explore paediatricians’ views regarding the experience and management of pain in children with PIMD and invited 480 professionals working in the canton of Vaud, Switzerland, to take part. We received 121 responses (participation rate 25.5%). A large majority of respondents provided care to children with PIMD. All paediatricians considered that these children feel pain at least as much as typically developing children. However, paediatricians had mixed views on their tolerance to pain. More than 90% held the view that their pain is under-assessed and undertreated. The principal barriers they reported to appropriate management were communication limitations with the child, difficulties in pain assessment, lack of knowledge about children with disabilities and lack of experience. Paediatricians have complex opinions regarding how children with PIMD experience pain and how to manage this problem. Professional education and training on the specificities of children with PIMD, including how to address their pain, seem necessary to foster paediatricians’ ability and confidence in approaching this complex issue.

Pain in Children With Developmental Disabilities: Development and Preliminary Effectiveness of a Pain Training Workshop for Respite Workers

INTRODUCTION

Pain in children with intellectual disabilities (ID) is common and complex, yet there is no standard pain training for their secondary caregivers (ie, respite staff).

OBJECTIVES

Determine perceived pain training needs/preferences of children's respite staff (phase 1) and, use this information combined with extant research and guidelines to develop and pilot a training (phase 2).

METHODS

In phase 1, 22 participants responded to questionnaires and engaged in individual interviews/focus groups about their experiences with pain in children with ID, and perceived training needs/preferences. In phase 2, 50 participants completed knowledge measures and rated the feasibility of, and their own confidence and skill in, pain assessment and management for children with ID immediately before and after completing a pain training. They also completed a training evaluation.

RESULTS

Participants viewed pain training as beneficial. Their ideal training involved a half-day, multifaceted in-person program with a relatively small group of trainees incorporating a variety of learning activities, and an emphasis on active learning. Phase 2 results suggested that completion of the 3 to 3.5-hour pain training significantly increased respite workers' pain-related knowledge (effect sizes: r=0.81 to 0.88), as well as their ratings of the feasibility of, and their own confidence and skill in, pain assessment and management in children with ID (effect sizes: r=0.41 to 0.70). The training was rated favorably.

DISCUSSION

Training can positively impact respite workers' knowledge and perceptions about pain assessment and management. As such, they may be better equipped to care for children with ID in this area.

Interventions in pain management for persons with an intellectual disability

Pain is a multidimensional and subjective experience, and an ideal pain management regime needs to be comprehensive, integrative and involve all relevant persons. Multimodal interventions may include pharmacological, physical, social, psychological and spiritual approaches in order to address pain management at a molecular, functional, behavioural, cognitive and affective levels. Pain management interventions will vary according to pain aetiology, patient characteristics and preferences. In keeping with best practice guidelines for effective pain management, a structured approach incorporating an effective assessment of pain by the healthcare professional, identification of the source and type of pain and accurate documentation is essential. This article focuses on pharmacological and non-pharmacological pain management for individuals with intellectual disability.

An exploration of Indonesian nurses’ perceptions of barriers to paediatric pain management

There is a dearth of research in Indonesia regarding pain management in children. Previous studies have identified that although a variety of research and clinical studies on all aspects of pain have been conducted in many countries, children continue to experience moderate to severe pain during hospitalization. Greater research efforts are needed to identify and explore the factors that impede effective pain management in children. To address this gap, the researchers conducted an exploratory descriptive qualitative study to capture Indonesian nurses' perceptions of barriers to paediatric pain management in two hospitals. Using purposive sampling, data were collected from 37 nurses through semi-structured, in-depth interviews. Findings indicated that nurses working in Indonesian paediatric wards felt that they were not able to provide effective pain care to hospitalized children. Nurses identified several organizational structural and cultural factors that were thought to hinder their provision of effective pain care to paediatric patients. These factors are embedded in nurses' clinical practice. The study findings can assist to inform relevant initiatives and strategies to improve clinical nurses' performance and competency in providing effective pain care to paediatric patients.

Experiences of Iranian Nurses on the Facilitators of Pain Management in Children: A Qualitative Study

Background. Despite decades of research and the availability of effective analgesic approaches, many children continue to experience moderate-to-severe pain after hospitalization. Greater research efforts are needed to identify the factors that facilitate effective pain management. The aim of this study was to explore the perceptions of Iranian nurses on facilitators of pain management in children. Materials and Methods. This qualitative study collected the data profoundly through unstructured interviews with 19 nurses in Amirkola Children's Hospital in Babol and Children's Medical Center in Tehran, during 2013-2014. Purposeful sampling and analysis of the data were conducted using conventional qualitative content analysis. Results. Four themes were extracted through data analysis: mother and child participation in diagnosis and pain relief, the timely presence of medical staff and parents, proper communication, and training and supportive role of nurses. Conclusion. Mother and child participation in the report and diagnosis of pain and nonpharmacological interventions for pain by the mother, the timely presence of medical team at the patient's bedside, and proper interaction along with the training and supportive role of a nurse enhanced the optimal pain management in hospitalized children.

Pain in Intellectually Disabled Children: Towards Evidence-Based Pharmacotherapy?

This critical opinion article deals with the challenges of finding the most effective pharmacotherapeutic options for the management of pain in intellectually disabled children and provides recommendations for clinical practice and research. Intellectual disability can be caused by a wide variety of underlying diseases and may be associated with congenital anomalies such as cardiac defects, small-bowel obstructions or limb abnormalities as well as with comorbidities such as scoliosis, gastro-esophageal reflux disease, spasticity, and epilepsy. These conditions themselves or any necessary surgical interventions are sources of pain. Epilepsy often requires chronic pharmacological treatment with antiepileptic drugs. These antiepileptic drugs can potentially cause drug-drug interactions with analgesic drugs. It is unfortunate that children with intellectual disabilities often cannot communicate pain to caregivers. Although these children are at high risk of experiencing pain, researchers nevertheless often have to exclude them from trials on pain management because of ethical considerations. We therefore make a plea for prescribers, researchers, patient organizations, pharmaceutical companies, and policy makers to study evidence-based, safe and effective pharmacotherapy in these children through properly designed studies. In the meantime, parents and clinicians must resort to validated pain assessment tools such as the revised FLACC scale.

Improving acute pain management in emergency medicine

Undertreatment of pain (oligoanalgesia) in the emergency department is common, and it negatively impacts patient care. Both failure of appropriate pain assessment and the potential for unsafe analgesic use contribute to the problem. As a result, achieving satisfactory analgesia while minimizing side effects remains particularly challenging for emergency physicians, both in the emergency department and after a patient is discharged. Improvements in rapid pain assessment and in evaluation of noncommunicative populations may result in a better estimation of which patients require analgesia and how much pain is present. New formulations of available treatments, such as rapidly absorbed, topical, or intranasal nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug formulations or intranasal opioids, may provide effective analgesia with an improved risk-benefit profile. Other pharmacological therapies have been shown to be effective for certain pain modalities, such as the use of antidepressants for musculoskeletal pain, γ-aminobutyric acid agonists for neuropathic and postsurgical pain, antipsychotics for headache, and topical capsaicin for neuropathic pain. Nonpharmacological methods of pain control include the use of electrical stimulation, relaxation therapies, psychosocial/manipulative therapies, and acupuncture. Tailoring of available treatment options to specific pain modalities, as well as improvements in pain assessment, treatment options, and formulations, may improve pain control in the emergency department setting and beyond.

Empirical review supporting the application of the "pain assessment as a social transaction" model in pediatrics

Despite decades of research, national mandates, and widespread implementation of guidelines, recent reports suggest that the quality of pain assessment and management in hospitalized children remains suboptimal. The mismatch between what is advocated and what is done in practice has led experts to argue for a conceptual shift in thinking, where the pain assessment process is viewed from a complex social communication or transaction framework. This article examines the empirical evidence from the recent pediatric pain assessment and decision-making literature that supports adaptation of Schiavenato and Craig's "Pain Assessment as a Social Transaction" model in explaining pediatric acute pain management decisions. Multiple factors contributing to children's pain experiences and expressions are explored, and some of the difficulties interpreting their pain scores are exposed. Gaps in knowledge related to nurses' clinical pain management decisions are identified, and the importance of children's and parents' preferences and roles and the influence of risks and adverse events on decision making are identified. This review highlights the complexity of pediatric nurses' pain management decisions toward the clinical goal of improving comfort while minimizing risk. Further study evaluating the propositions related to nurses' decisions to intervene is needed in pediatric clinical settings to better synthesize this model for children.

Pain management in intellectually disabled children: a survey of perceptions and current practices among Dutch anesthesiologists

BACKGROUND

  Intellectually disabled children are more likely to undergo surgical interventions and almost all have comorbidities that need to be managed. Compared with controls, intellectually disabled children tend to receive less intraoperative analgesia and fewer of them are assessed for postoperative pain.

AIM

  To evaluate perceptions and practices of anesthesiologists in the Netherlands concerning pain management in intellectually disabled children.

METHODS/MATERIALS

  We surveyed members of the Section on Pediatric Anesthesiology of the Netherlands Society of Anesthesiology in 2005 and 2009, using a self-designed questionnaire.

RESULTS

  The response rate was 47% in both years. In 2005, 32% of the anesthesiologists rated intellectually disabled children as 'more sensitive to pain' than nonintellectually disabled children--vs 25% in 2009. But no more than 7% in 2005 vs 6% in 2009 agreed with the statement 'children with intellectually disabled children need more analgesia'. Most anesthesiologists gave similar doses of intraoperative opioids for intellectually disabled and nonintellectually disabled children, 92% in 2005 vs 89% in 2009. In 2005, only 3% applied a pain assessment tool validated for intellectually disabled children, vs 4% in 2009.

CONCLUSIONS

Anesthesiologists in the Netherlands take a different approach when caring for intellectually disabled children and they were not aware of pain observation scales for these children. However, the majority think that intellectually disabled children are not more sensitive to pain or require more analgesia. These opinions did not change over the 4-year period. One way to proceed is to implement validated pain assessment tools and to invest in education.

Anaesthesia and postoperative analgesia in surgical neonates with or without Down's syndrome: is it really different?

BACKGROUND

Reports conflict on optimal postoperative analgesic treatment in children with intellectual disability. We retrospectively compared postoperative analgesics consumption between neonates with and without Down's syndrome in relation to anaesthesia requirements and pain scores.

METHODS

We analysed hypnotic and analgesic drug administration, pain scores [COMFORT-Behaviour (COMFORT-B) scale], and duration of mechanical ventilation during the first 48 h after surgical repair of congenital duodenal obstruction in neonates, between 1999 and 2011. Data of 15 children with Down's syndrome were compared with data of 30 children without Down's syndrome.

RESULTS

General anaesthesia requirements did not differ. The median (inter-quartile range) maintenance dose of morphine during the first 24 h after operation was 9.5 (7.8-10.1) µg kg(-1) h(-1) in the Down's syndrome group vs 7.7 (5.0-10.0) µg kg(-1) h(-1) in the control group (P=0.46). Morphine doses at postoperative day 2 and COMFORT-B scores at day 1 did not significantly differ between the two groups. COMFORT-B scores at day two were lower in children with Down's syndrome (P=0.04). The duration of postoperative mechanical ventilation did not statistically differ between the two groups (P=0.89).

CONCLUSIONS

In this study, neonates with and without Down's syndrome received adequate postoperative analgesia, as judged from comparable analgesic consumption and pain scores. We recommend prospective studies in children of different age groups with Down's syndrome and in other groups of intellectually disabled children to provide further investigation of the hypothesis that intellectual disability predisposes to different analgesic requirements.

Intraoperative opioid dosing in children with and without cerebral palsy

OBJECTIVE

To describe the differences in intraoperative opioid dosing and associated outcomes in children with and without cerebral palsy (CP).

BACKGROUND

Previous work on children with cognitive impairment has suggested that they receive less intraoperative opioid than children without cognitive impairment. This finding may be due to a common concern that impaired children are hypersensitive to the adverse effects of opioids. Patterns in intraoperative opioid dosing have yet to be studied in children with motor impairment (e.g. CP).

METHODS

We examined the medical records of pediatric patients with CP who underwent orthopedic surgery over the last decade at our institution, as well as the records of a randomly selected group of pediatric orthopedic patients without CP (non-CP). Outcome variables were intraoperative opioid dosing, postoperative intensive care unit (ICU) admission, and postoperative oxygen desaturation. We collected demographic, surgical, and medical data for covariate analysis. A stepwise multivariate regression was used for each outcome.

RESULTS

Seventy-one (71) CP and 77 non-CP charts were included in the study. CP children received significantly less intraoperative opioid (3.26 +/- 3.01 microg.kg(-1) fentanyl dose equivalents) than non-CP children (4.58 +/- 3.79 microg.kg(-1)) (P = 0.02), and this difference was corroborated by the regression analysis, which significantly associated CP with decreased opioid dosing (P < 0.001). In addition, intraoperative opioid dosing, but not CP, predicted ICU admission (odds ratio: 1.463, 95% CI: 1.042-2.054, P = 0.03) and postoperative oxygen desaturation (odds ratio: 1.174, 95% CI: 1.031-1.338, P = 0.02).

CONCLUSIONS

Similar to prior research on children with cognitive impairment, a reduction in intraoperative opioid dosing was found in children with CP. Given the discrepant doses of intraoperative opioid between groups, it is unclear whether children with CP are at any greater risk for untoward opioid-related events.

The revised FLACC observational pain tool: improved reliability and validity for pain assessment in children with cognitive impairment

BACKGROUND

Difficulty with pain assessment in individuals who cannot self-report their pain poses a significant barrier to effective pain management. However, available assessment tools lack consistent reliability as pain measures in children with cognitive impairment (CI). This study evaluated the validity and reliability of the revised and individualized Face Legs Activity Cry and Consolability (FLACC) behavioral pain assessment tool in children with CI.

METHODS

Children with CI scheduled for elective surgery were studied. The FLACC was revised to include specific descriptors and parent-identified, unique behaviors for individual children. The child's ability to self-report pain was evaluated. Postoperatively, two nurses scored pain using the revised FLACC scale before and after analgesic administration, and, children self-reported a pain score, if able. Observations were videotaped and later viewed by experienced nurses blinded to analgesic administration.

RESULTS

Eighty observations were recorded in 52 children aged 4-19 years. Twenty-one parents added individualized pain behaviors to the revised FLACC. Interrater reliability was supported by excellent intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC, ranging from 0.76 to 0.90) and adequate kappa statistics (0.44-0.57). Criterion validity was supported by the correlations between FLACC, parent, and child scores (rho = 0.65-0.87; P < 0.001). Construct validity was demonstrated by the decrease in FLACC scores following analgesic administration (6.1 +/- 2.6 vs 1.9 +/- 2.7; P < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

Findings support the reliability and validity of the FLACC as a measure of pain in children with CI.

Validity of Parent Ratings as Proxy Measures of Pain in Children with Cognitive Impairment

Parent-assigned pain scores have been used as proxy measures of pain for children, such as those with cognitive impairment (CI), who cannot self-report. However, the accuracy of parent-assigned pain ratings for children with CI has not been studied. This study evaluated the construct and criterion validity of parental pain scores of children with CI. Fifty-two children aged 4 to 19 years with CI and their parents/guardians were included in this observational study. Children were observed and assessed for pain by parents using the Faces, Legs, Activity, Cry, and Consolability (FLACC) observational tool and the 0 to 10 Numbers Scale, and simultaneously by nurses using the FLACC. Children who were cognitively able scored pain using simplified scales. Parent scores decreased after analgesic administration (6.4 +/- 2.5 vs. 3.1 +/- 2.3; p = .004), supporting their construct validity. Parents' FLACC and Numbers ratings correlated well with nurse ratings (intraclass correlation coefficient = 0.78 [confidence interval = 0.63-0.87] and intraclass correlation coefficient = 0.73 [confidence interval = 0.59-0.83], respectively). The parents' coded Numbers ratings correlated moderately with their child's ratings (rho = 0.57; p = .05) and agreed in 20% to 100% of cases (kappa = 0.388). There was better overall agreement between parents' FLACC scores and child ratings (33%-67% agreement; kappa = 0.43). The parent underestimated the child's pain with FLACC ratings in only one case (8%), but overestimated pain in three cases (25%). This study suggests that parents of children with CI provide reasonable estimates of their child's pain, particularly when using a structured pain tool. Parents may, however, tend to overestimate their child's pain during the early postoperative period.