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Borges RM. Interactions Between Figs and Gall-Inducing Fig Wasps: Adaptations, Constraints, and Unanswered Questions. Front Ecol Evol 2021. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2021.685542] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The ancient interaction between figs (Ficus, Moraceae) and their pollinating fig wasps is an unusual example of a mutualism between plants and gall-inducing insects. This review intends to offer fresh perspectives into the relationship between figs and the diversity of gall-inducing sycophiles which inhabit their enclosed globular inflorescences that function as microcosms. Besides gall-inducing pollinators, fig inflorescences are also inhabited by other gall-inducing wasps. This review evaluates the state of current knowledge on gall-induction by fig wasps and exposes the many lacunae in this area. This review makes connections between fig and gall-inducing wasp traits, and suggests relatively unexplored research avenues. This manuscript calls for an integrated approach that incorporates such diverse fields as life-history theory, plant mate choice, wasp sexual selection and local mate competition, plant embryology as well as seed and fruit dispersal. It calls for collaboration between researchers such as plant developmental biologists, insect physiologists, chemical ecologists and sensory biologists to jointly solve the many valuable questions that can be addressed in community ecology, co-evolution and species interaction biology using the fig inflorescence microcosm, that is inhabited by gall-inducing mutualistic and parasitic wasps, as a model system.
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Leme FM, Borella PH, Marinho CR, Teixeira SP. Expanding the laticifer knowledge in Cannabaceae: distribution, morphology, origin, and latex composition. PROTOPLASMA 2020; 257:1183-1199. [PMID: 32212022 DOI: 10.1007/s00709-020-01500-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2019] [Accepted: 03/10/2020] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Cannabaceae is a known family because of the production of cannabinoids in laticifers and glandular trichomes of Cannabis sativa. Laticifers are latex-secreting structures, which in Cannabaceae were identified only in C. sativa and Humulus lupulus. This study aimed to expand the knowledge of laticifers in Cannabaceae by checking their structural type and distribution, and the main classes of substances in the latex of Celtis pubescens, Pteroceltis tatarinowii, and Trema micrantha. Such information is also updated for C. sativa. Samples of shoot apices, stems, leaves, and flowers were processed for anatomical, histochemical, ultrastructural, and cytochemical analyses. Laticifers are articulated unbranched in all species instead of non-articulated as previously described for the family. They occur in all sampled organs. They are thick-walled, multinucleate, with a large vacuole and a peripheral cytoplasm. The cytoplasm is rich in mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, dictyosomes, ribosomes, and plastids containing starch grains and oil drops. Pectinase and cellulase activities were detected in the laticifer wall and vacuole, confirming its articulated origin, described by first time in the family. These enzymes promote the complete dissolution of the laticifer terminal walls. The latex contains proteins, lipids, and polysaccharides in addition to phenolics (C. sativa) and terpenes (C. pubescens, T. micrantha). The presence of laticifers with similar distribution and morphology supports the recent insertion of Celtis, Pteroceltis, and Trema in Cannabaceae. The articulated type of laticifer found in Cannabaceae, Moraceae, and Urticaceae indicates that the separation of these families by having distinct laticifer types should be reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Flávia Maria Leme
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Biologia Vegetal, Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Estadual de Campinas, R. Monteiro Lobato 255, Campinas, SP, 13083-862, Brazil
- Laboratório de Botânica, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso do Sul, Cidade Universitária, Caixa Postal 549, Campo Grande, MS, 79070-900, Brazil
- Departamento de Ciências Farmacêuticas, Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, Av. do Café, s/n, Ribeirão Preto, SP, 14040-903, Brazil
| | - Pedro Henrique Borella
- Departamento de Ciências Farmacêuticas, Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, Av. do Café, s/n, Ribeirão Preto, SP, 14040-903, Brazil
| | - Cristina Ribeiro Marinho
- Departamento de Ciências Farmacêuticas, Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, Av. do Café, s/n, Ribeirão Preto, SP, 14040-903, Brazil
| | - Simone Pádua Teixeira
- Departamento de Ciências Farmacêuticas, Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, Av. do Café, s/n, Ribeirão Preto, SP, 14040-903, Brazil.
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Ramos MV, Demarco D, da Costa Souza IC, de Freitas CDT. Laticifers, Latex, and Their Role in Plant Defense. TRENDS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2019; 24:553-567. [PMID: 30979674 DOI: 10.1016/j.tplants.2019.03.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2018] [Revised: 03/11/2019] [Accepted: 03/12/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Latex, a sap produced by cells called laticifers, occurs in plants of wide taxonomic diversity. Plants exude latex sap in response to physical damage. Questions about the function of latex or the underlying mechanisms persist, but a role in defense is likely. The presence of constitutive peptidases in latex sap in addition to inducible and de novo synthesized pathogenesis-related proteins (PR-proteins), raises the question about the role that each sap component plays to protect plants and how synergism occurs among sap proteins in the course of herbivory or infection. Here we discuss a variety of functions for laticifer and latex in plant defense. We propose that latex peptidases build the front line of defense against herbivores or pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Márcio Viana Ramos
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Biologia Molecular, Universidade Federal do Ceará, Campus do Pici, Bloco 907, Fortaleza-Ceará, CEP 60451-970, Brazil.
| | - Diego Demarco
- Departamento de Botânica, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, CEP 05508-090, Brazil
| | - Isabel Cristina da Costa Souza
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Biologia Molecular, Universidade Federal do Ceará, Campus do Pici, Bloco 907, Fortaleza-Ceará, CEP 60451-970, Brazil
| | - Cleverson Diniz Teixeira de Freitas
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Biologia Molecular, Universidade Federal do Ceará, Campus do Pici, Bloco 907, Fortaleza-Ceará, CEP 60451-970, Brazil
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Cassola F, Nunes CEP, Lusa MG, Garcia VL, Mayer JLS. Deep in the Jelly: Histochemical and Functional Aspects of Mucilage-Secreting Floral Colleters in the Orchids Elleanthus brasiliensis and E. crinipes. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2019; 10:518. [PMID: 31068961 PMCID: PMC6491853 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2019.00518] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/25/2018] [Accepted: 04/04/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Colleters are trichomes or emergencies that produce a sticky exudate consisting of a mixture of mucilage, lipids, terpenes, and phenolic compounds. Colleters occur in at least 60 families of angiosperms; however, reports of them are scarce for the Orchidaceae. Elleanthus brasiliensis is distinguished by the presence of an abundant gelatinous secretion that covers almost all of its inflorescences. We aimed to describe the histology of colleters in inflorescences of E. brasiliensis and Elleanthus crinipes, and to analyze the chemical composition of their secretion to better understand the functions of these secretory structures. Due to the low frequency of colleters and lack of visible secretion in E. crinipes, histochemical tests and chemical analyses were not performed for this species. Colleters are of a brush type and their secretion has, at the same time, hydrophilic and lipophilic components. Histochemical tests further revealed the presence of pectin, mucilage, lipids, terpenes, phenolic compounds, and proteins. The GC-MS analysis confirmed the presence of γ-sitosterol and palmitic, linoleic, and stearic acids in the secretion of E. brasiliensis. Infrared analysis indicated the possible presence of polysaccharides in the secretion. The occurrence of colleters in both species studied and in other orchids described in the literature suggests that these structures are common in the inflorescences of tropical orchids. In these environments, the hydrated polysaccharides in the secretion form a dense matrix that can act as a physical barrier, and terpenes may help to protect against herbivores and pathogenic microorganisms. This information broadens our knowledge of the morphological and chemical diversity of the secretions produced by orchid colleters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fábio Cassola
- Institute of Biology, State University of Campinas, Campinas, Brazil
- Department of Organic and Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Chemical, Biological and Agricultural Pluridisciplinary Research Center, Paulínia, Brazil
| | - Carlos Eduardo Pereira Nunes
- Institute of Biology, State University of Campinas, Campinas, Brazil
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Stirling, Stirling, Scotland
| | - Makeli Garibotti Lusa
- Institute of Biology, State University of Campinas, Campinas, Brazil
- Center of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, Brazil
| | - Vera Lúcia Garcia
- Department of Organic and Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Chemical, Biological and Agricultural Pluridisciplinary Research Center, Paulínia, Brazil
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