1
|
Akhoundi M, Mathieu A, Hannachi W, Nasrallah J, Quezel G, Blaizot R, Blanchet D, Ben Romdhane H, Epelboin L, Izri A. Morphological and Molecular Characterizations of Cochliomyia hominivorax (Diptera: Calliphoridae) Larvae Responsible for Wound Myiasis in French Guiana. Diagnostics (Basel) 2023; 13:2575. [PMID: 37568937 PMCID: PMC10416906 DOI: 10.3390/diagnostics13152575] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2023] [Revised: 07/25/2023] [Accepted: 07/27/2023] [Indexed: 08/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Myiasis is an ectoparasitic infection caused by the larvae of true flies (Diptera). We came across a rather rare case of myiasis in an immunocompetent 34-year-old man from French Guiana with advanced wound myiasis masquerading as cavitary myiasis and a history of cholesteatoma surgery in the left ear. The Diptera larvae responsible for the disease were isolated and identified using morphological and molecular approaches as Cochliomyia hominivorax. We underline the importance of this parasitosis as the second case of myiasis caused by C. hominivorax and the first case of wound myiasis in this overseas department of France and its incidence in pre-urban areas of the capital, Cayenne, in South America.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mohammad Akhoundi
- Parasitology-Mycology Department, Avicenne Hospital, AP-HP, Sorbonne Paris Nord University, 93000 Bobigny, France
| | - Alexandre Mathieu
- Groupe d’Étude et de Protection des Oiseaux en Guyane, Rémire-Montjoly 97354, French Guiana
| | - Wajih Hannachi
- ENT Department, Centre Hospitalier de Cayenne Andrée Rosemon, Cayenne 97306, French Guiana
| | - Jade Nasrallah
- Parasitology-Mycology Department, Avicenne Hospital, AP-HP, Sorbonne Paris Nord University, 93000 Bobigny, France
| | - Guillaume Quezel
- Infectious and Tropical Diseases Unit, Centre Hospitalier de Cayenne Andrée Rosemon, Cayenne 97306, French Guiana
| | - Romain Blaizot
- Department of Dermatology, Centre Hospitalier de Cayenne Andrée Rosemon, Cayenne 97306, French Guiana
| | - Denis Blanchet
- Parasitology Mycology Universitary Laboratory, Centre Hospitalier de Cayenne Andrée Rosemon, Cayenne 97306, French Guiana
| | | | - Loïc Epelboin
- Infectious and Tropical Diseases Unit, Centre Hospitalier de Cayenne Andrée Rosemon, Cayenne 97306, French Guiana
- Centre d’Investigation Clinique Antilles Guyane CIC Inserm 1424, Centre Hospitalier de Cayenne Andrée Rosemon, Cayenne 97306, French Guiana
| | - Arezki Izri
- Parasitology-Mycology Department, Avicenne Hospital, AP-HP, Sorbonne Paris Nord University, 93000 Bobigny, France
- Unité des Virus Émergents (UVE: Aix-Marseille Université-IRD 190-Inserm 1207-IHU Méditerranée Infection), 13005 Marseille, France
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Tietjen M, Pérez de León AA, Sagel A, Skoda SR, Phillips PL, Mitchell RD, Caruth J, Durán U, Musai L, Tortosa S, Arp AP. Geographic Population Genetic Structure of the New World Screwworm, Cochliomyia hominivorax (Diptera: Calliphoridae), Using SNPs. JOURNAL OF MEDICAL ENTOMOLOGY 2022; 59:874-882. [PMID: 35323976 DOI: 10.1093/jme/tjac024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
The New World screwworm, Cochliomyia hominivorax (Coquerel 1858) (Diptera: Calliphoridae), is a serious parasite of livestock, humans, and other warm-blooded animals. It has been eradicated from the northern parts of its historical range down to the Panama-Colombian border where a permanent barrier zone is maintained. This eradication was accomplished through using the sterile insect technique (SIT). In 2016 there was an outbreak of C. hominivorax in the Florida Keys. In only six months, this pest was successfully re-eradicated using SIT, but the geographic origin of the invasion has yet to be resolved. It was previously determined that the Florida flies most likely represented a single invasion, and it was recommended that a finer-scale genetic assessment should be completed. Thus, this current proof-of-concept study aimed to develop a population genetic database using single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) to reference outbreaks and potentially identify the origin of the Florida outbreak. This initial database consists of wild-caught samples from 4 geographic locations as well as laboratory colony samples that originated from 7 additional locations using a genotyping by sequencing (GBS) approach. Geographic population structuring was identified for twelve populations that clustered according to geographic location. The Florida outbreak samples appeared similar to samples from the outer Caribbean cluster which included samples from Dominican Republic and Trinidad and Tobago, however, these results will be further clarified with the replacement of laboratory colony samples with future wild-caught samples.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mackenzie Tietjen
- United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Knipling-Bushland U.S. Livestock Insects Research Laboratory, 2700 Fredericksburg Road, Kerrville, TX, 78028, USA
| | - Adalberto A Pérez de León
- United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, San Joaquin Valley Agricultural Sciences Center: Parlier, CA, 93648, USA
| | - Agustin Sagel
- United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Screwworm Research Unit, Pacora, Panama
| | - Steve R Skoda
- United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Knipling-Bushland U.S. Livestock Insects Research Laboratory, 2700 Fredericksburg Road, Kerrville, TX, 78028, USA
| | - Pamela L Phillips
- United States Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, International Services, International Services, Pacora, Panama
| | - Robert D Mitchell
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Pesticide Programs, Washington, DC, 20460, USA
| | - Joanne Caruth
- Animal Health Unit, Division of Food Production Forestry and Fisheries, Tobago House of Assembly. Hope Farm, Trinidad and Tobago
| | - Uziel Durán
- Direccion General de Ganaderia (DIGEGA), Ministry of Agriculture of the Dominican Republic, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic
| | - Lisa Musai
- Animal Production and Health Division, Ministry of Agriculture, Land and Fisheries, Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago
| | - Silvia Tortosa
- Direccion General de Ganaderia (DIGEGA), Ministry of Agriculture of the Dominican Republic, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic
| | - Alex P Arp
- United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Screwworm Research Unit, Pacora, Panama
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Costa-Júnior LM, Chaves DP, Brito DRB, Santos VAFD, Costa-Júnior HN, Barros ATM. A review on the occurrence of Cochliomyia hominivorax (Diptera: Calliphoridae) in Brazil. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2020; 28:548-562. [PMID: 31483031 DOI: 10.1590/s1984-29612019059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2019] [Accepted: 07/03/2019] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Cochliomyia hominivorax (Coquerel, 1858), the New World screwworm, causes primary myiasis in wild and domestic animals in tropical and subtropical regions of Brazil. Although this species is considered to occur throughout the country, organized information about its recorded distribution has not been available until now. This article aimed to provide a comprehensive review of the historical and current data published on both immature (myiasis) and adult stages of C. hominivorax in Brazil. A total of 174 articles were found; of these, 141 articles reported myiasis cases in cattle (146 records), humans (68 records), and other mammalian hosts (40 records), and captures of adult flies were reported in 33 articles. C. hominivorax is widespread in Brazil, having been recorded in 208 municipalities in all major biomes of the country.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Livio Martins Costa-Júnior
- Laboratório de Controle de Parasitos, Centro de Ciências Biológicas e da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Maranhão - UFMA, São Luís, MA, Brasil
| | - Daniel Praseres Chaves
- Departamento de Patologia, Centro de Ciências Agrárias, Universidade Federal do Maranhão - UFMA, São Luís, MA, Brasil
| | | | - Vitor Augusto Ferreira Dos Santos
- Laboratório de Controle de Parasitos, Centro de Ciências Biológicas e da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Maranhão - UFMA, São Luís, MA, Brasil
| | - Henrique Nelson Costa-Júnior
- Laboratório de Controle de Parasitos, Centro de Ciências Biológicas e da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Maranhão - UFMA, São Luís, MA, Brasil
| | | |
Collapse
|
4
|
Bergamo LW, Fresia P, Lyra ML, Azeredo-Espin AML. High Genetic Diversity and No Population Structure of the New World Screwworm Fly Cochliomyia hominivorax (Diptera: Calliphoridae) on a Microgeographic Scale: Implications for Management Units. JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 2018; 111:2476-2482. [PMID: 30256994 DOI: 10.1093/jee/toy171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2017] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
The New World screwworm fly Cochliomyia hominivorax (Coquerel, 1858) (Diptera: Calliphoridae) is an important livestock pest endemic to the Americas that has been eradicated from North and continental Central America with a control program based on the Sterile Insect Technique (SIT). The establishment of target management units is a strategic step in the implementation of new control programs, which can be achieved using genetic studies of natural populations. Previous studies of New World screwworm fly populations were conducted on the continental scale and identified four main groups: two in South America and two in the Caribbean. However, studies within these groups are needed to determine which smaller geographic areas can be treated as management units. Here, we analyze the genetic variability distribution and the population demographic signals of the New World screwworm fly in a 6,000 km2 area located along the border of Brazil and Uruguay. This area was the subject of the first control pilot program conducted in South America. We studied eight microsatellite loci and sequences from two mitochondrial DNA regions in individuals sampled at 20-25 livestock breeding farms. We observed no population structure and found high genetic variability on the geographical scale sampled for both molecular markers. Our microsatellite data suggest that these populations are not in equilibrium, and demographic analyses based on mitochondrial data indicate population expansion. These results suggest that this geographic scale is not adequate for future New World screwworm fly management in South America.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Luana W Bergamo
- Departamento de Genética, Evolução, Microbiologia e Imunologia, Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Estadual de Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, SP, Brazil
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Genética e Biologia Molecular, Universidade Estadual de Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, SP, Brazil
- Centro de Biologia Molecular e Engenharia Genética, Universidade Estadual de Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, SP, Brazil
| | - Pablo Fresia
- Unidad de Bioinformática, Institut Pasteur de Montevideo, Montevideo, Uruguay
| | - Mariana L Lyra
- Departamento de Zoologia, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade Estadual Paulista Júlio de Mesquita Filho, Rio Claro, SP, Brazil
| | - Ana Maria L Azeredo-Espin
- Departamento de Genética, Evolução, Microbiologia e Imunologia, Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Estadual de Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, SP, Brazil
- Centro de Biologia Molecular e Engenharia Genética, Universidade Estadual de Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, SP, Brazil
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Dupuis JR, Guerrero FD, Skoda SR, Phillips PL, Welch JB, Schlater JL, Azeredo-Espin AML, Pérez de León AA, Geib SM. Molecular Characterization of the 2016 New World Screwworm (Diptera: Calliphoridae) Outbreak in the Florida Keys. JOURNAL OF MEDICAL ENTOMOLOGY 2018; 55:938-946. [PMID: 29788142 DOI: 10.1093/jme/tjy078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
New World screwworm (NWS), Cochliomyia hominivorax (Coquerel 1858) (Diptera: Calliphoridae), is a myiasis-causing fly that can be a serious threat to the health of livestock, wildlife, and humans. Its progressive eradication from the southern United States, Mexico, and Central America from the 1950s to 2000s is an excellent example of successful pest management using sterile insect technique (SIT). In late 2016, autochthonous NWS were detected in the Florida Keys, representing this species' first invasion in the United States in >30 yr. Rapid use of quarantine and SIT was successful in eliminating the infestation by early 2017; however, the geographic source of this infestation remains unknown. Here, we use amplicon sequencing to generate mitochondrial and nuclear sequence data representing all confirmed cases of NWS from this infestation, and compare these sequences to preexisting data sets sampling the native distribution of NWS. We ask two questions regarding the FL Keys outbreak. First, is this infestation the result of a single invasion from one source, or multiple invasions from different sources? And second, what is the geographic origin of this invasion? We found virtually no sequence variation between specimens collected from the FL Keys outbreak, which is consistent with a single source of introduction. However, we also found very little geographic resolution in any of the data sets, which precludes identification of the source of this outbreak. Our lack of success in answering our second question speaks to the need for finer-scale genetic or genomic assessments of NWS population structure, which would facilitate source determination of potential future outbreaks.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Julian R Dupuis
- U.S. Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service, Daniel K. Inouye U.S. Pacific Basin Agricultural Research Center, Hilo, HI
- Department of Plant and Environmental Protection Services, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, HI
| | - Felix D Guerrero
- USDA-ARS, Knipling-Bushland U.S. Livestock Insects Research Laboratory and Veterinary Pest Genomics Center, Kerrville, TX
| | - Steven R Skoda
- USDA-ARS, Knipling-Bushland U.S. Livestock Insects Research Laboratory and Veterinary Pest Genomics Center, Kerrville, TX
| | - Pamela L Phillips
- USDA-ARS, Knipling-Bushland U.S. Livestock Insects Research Laboratory and Veterinary Pest Genomics Center, Kerrville, TX
| | - John B Welch
- USDA-APHIS, International Services, Action Programs, College Station, TX
| | - Jack L Schlater
- USDA-APHIS, National Veterinary Services Laboratory, Ames, IA
| | - Ana Maria L Azeredo-Espin
- Centro de Biologia Molecular e Engenharia Genética and Departamento de Genética, Evolução e Bioagentes, Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Estadual de Campinas Instituto de Biologia, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Adalberto A Pérez de León
- USDA-ARS, Knipling-Bushland U.S. Livestock Insects Research Laboratory and Veterinary Pest Genomics Center, Kerrville, TX
| | - Scott M Geib
- U.S. Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service, Daniel K. Inouye U.S. Pacific Basin Agricultural Research Center, Hilo, HI
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Koroiva R, de Souza MS, Roque FDO, Pepinelli M. DNA Barcodes for Forensically Important Fly Species in Brazil. JOURNAL OF MEDICAL ENTOMOLOGY 2018; 55:1055-1061. [PMID: 29635368 DOI: 10.1093/jme/tjy045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2017] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Here, we analyze 248 DNA barcode sequences of 35 fly species of forensic importance in Brazil. DNA barcoding can be effectively used for specimen identification of these species, allowing the unambiguous identification of 31 species, an overall success rate of 88%. Our results show a high rate of success for molecular identification using DNA barcoding sequences and open new perspectives for immature species identification, a subject on which limited forensic investigations exist in Tropical regions. We also address the implications of building a robust forensic DNA barcode database. A geographic bias is recognized for the COI dataset available for forensically important fly species in Brazil, with concentration of sequences from specimens collected mainly in sites located in the Cerrado, Mata Atlântica, and Pampa biomes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ricardo Koroiva
- Laboratório de Ecologia, InBio, Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso do Sul, Cidade Universitária, Campo Grande, MS, Brazil
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ecologia e Recursos Naturais, Universidade Federal de São Carlos, Rodovia Washington Luís, São Carlos, SP, Brazil
| | - Mirian S de Souza
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Entomologia e Conservação da Biodiversidade, Faculdade de Ciências Biológicas e Ambientais, Universidade Federal da Grande Dourados, Cidade Universitária, Rodovia Itahum/Dourados-MS, Dourados, MS, Brazil
| | - Fabio de Oliveira Roque
- Laboratório de Ecologia, InBio, Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso do Sul, Cidade Universitária, Campo Grande, MS, Brazil
- Centre for Tropical Environmental and Sustainability Science (TESS) and College of Science and Engineering, James Cook University, Cairns, Australia
| | - Mateus Pepinelli
- Department of Natural History, Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Bergamo LW, Fresia P, Azeredo-Espin AML. Incongruent nuclear and mitochondrial genetic structure of new world screwworm fly populations due to positive selection of mutations associated with dimethyl- and diethyl-organophosphates resistance. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0128441. [PMID: 26030866 PMCID: PMC4451984 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0128441] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2015] [Accepted: 04/27/2015] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Livestock production is an important economic activity in Brazil, which has been suffering significant losses due to the impact of parasites. The New World screwworm (NWS) fly, Cochliomyia hominivorax, is an ectoparasite and one of the most important myiasis-causing flies endemic to the Americas. The geographic distribution of NWS has been reduced after the implementation of the Sterile Insect Technique (SIT), being eradicated in North America and part of Central America. In South America, C. hominivorax is controlled by chemical insecticides, although indiscriminate use can cause selection of resistant individuals. Previous studies have associated the Gly137Asp and Trp251Leu mutations in the active site of carboxylesterase E3 to resistance of diethyl and dimethyl-organophosphates insecticides, respectively. Here, we have sequenced a fragment of the carboxylesterase E3 gene (ChαE7), comprising part of intron iII, exon eIII, intron iIII and part of exon eIV, and three mitochondrial gene sequences (CR, COI and COII), of NWS flies from 21 locations in South America. These markers were used for population structure analyses and the ChαE7 gene was also investigated to gain insight into the selective pressures that have shaped its evolution. Analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA) and pairwise FST analysis indicated an increased genetic structure between locations in the ChαE7 compared to the concatenated mitochondrial genes. Discriminant analysis of principal components (DAPC) and spatial analysis of molecular variance (SAMOVA) indicated different degrees of genetic structure for all markers, in agreement with the AMOVA results, but with low correlation to geographic data. The NWS fly is considered a panmitic species based on mitochondrial data, while it is structured into three groups considering the ChαE7 gene. A negative association between the two mutations related to organophosphate resistance and Fay & Wu’s H significant negative values for the exons, suggest that these mutations evolved under positive selection.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Luana Walravens Bergamo
- Center for Molecular Biology and Genetic Engineering (CBMEG), Campinas State University (UNICAMP), Campinas, SP, Brazil
- Department of Genetics, Evolution and Bioagents (DGEB), Institute of Biology (IB), Campinas State University (UNICAMP), Campinas, SP, Brazil
- * E-mail:
| | - Pablo Fresia
- Center for Molecular Biology and Genetic Engineering (CBMEG), Campinas State University (UNICAMP), Campinas, SP, Brazil
| | - Ana Maria L. Azeredo-Espin
- Center for Molecular Biology and Genetic Engineering (CBMEG), Campinas State University (UNICAMP), Campinas, SP, Brazil
- Department of Genetics, Evolution and Bioagents (DGEB), Institute of Biology (IB), Campinas State University (UNICAMP), Campinas, SP, Brazil
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Feldmann U, Ready P. Applying GIS and population genetics for managing livestock insect pests: case studies of tsetse and screwworm flies. Acta Trop 2014; 138 Suppl:S1-5. [PMID: 24713196 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2014.03.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2014] [Revised: 03/24/2014] [Accepted: 03/26/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) have supported a Co-ordinated Research Project (CRP) on 'Applying GIS and population genetics for managing livestock insect pests'. This six-year CRP (2008-2013) focused on research aimed at under-pinning the Area-Wide Integrated Pest Management (AW-IPM) of populations of tsetse and screwworm flies, and this introductory paper to the Special Issue integrates the findings of the CRP participants and discusses them in a broader context. The tools and techniques for mapping and modelling the distributions of genetically-characterised populations of tsetse and screwworm flies are increasingly used by researchers and managers for more effective decision-making in AW-IPM programmes, as illustrated by the reports in this Special Issue. Currently, the insect pests are often characterized only by neutral genetic markers suitable for recognizing spatially isolated populations that are sometimes associated with specific environments. Two challenges for those involved in AW-IPM are the standardization of best practice to permit the efficient application of GIS and genetic tools by regional teams, and the need to develop further the mapping and modelling of parasite and pest phenotypes that are epidemiologically important.
Collapse
|
9
|
Applying spatial analysis of genetic and environmental data to predict connection corridors to the New World screwworm populations in South America. Acta Trop 2014; 138 Suppl:S34-41. [PMID: 24742908 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2014.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2013] [Revised: 04/02/2014] [Accepted: 04/03/2014] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
The myiasis causing New World screwworm (NWS) fly is responsible for substantial losses to livestock breeders in the Americas. Due to the negative impact of the NWS fly in animal health, expansion of successful NWS fly eradication programmes is under discussion. However, the effects of geography and environmental diversity on NWS population structure and migration patterns need to be assessed before any political decision is made to implement such a programme. We present a GIS tool to construct potential connection corridors among sampling localities based on genetic and environmental data. We integrate, through a home-made python script, a friction raster based on a Maxent niche model and the pairwise ΦST statistic. Among 38 NWS fly sampling localities from South America, we find a high population connectivity among the sampling localities from the south of the Amazon region. The region along the Atlantic Ocean was identified as the most probable migration corridor between the north (NAG) and the south (SAG) of the Amazon region. The approach highlighted previously undetected population structure within NAG showing low to medium connectivity through the Andes, correlating with current understanding of NWS fly migration in South America. Also, the approach is flexible, allowing future research to incorporate other niche simulations and genetic differentiation metrics. With this flexibility, the tool could become part of any AW-IPM by helping to target regions for control.
Collapse
|