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Zhao L, Wu L, Xu W, Wei J, Niu X, Liu G, Yu L, Wu Y, Zhou Q, Liu L. Diagnostic techniques for critical respiratory infections: Update on current methods. Heliyon 2023; 9:e18957. [PMID: 37600408 PMCID: PMC10432708 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e18957] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2023] [Revised: 07/26/2023] [Accepted: 08/03/2023] [Indexed: 08/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Respiratory infections, whether chronic or acute, are frequent in both children and adults and result in an economic burden in health care systems. In particular, for an immunocompromised patient, respiratory infection leads to acute hypoxemic respiratory failure, a leading cause of intensive care unit (ICU) admission. Most respiratory infections are caused by bacteria, viruses, parasites, smoking, or air pollution. Over the last two decades, considerable improvements have been made in understanding and identifying respiratory infections. Various biosensing techniques have been developed with a range of targets to identify the infection at earlier stages. Recently, nanomaterials have been effectively applied to improve biosensors and their analytical performances. This review discusses recent biosensor developments for identifying respiratory infections caused by viruses and bacteria assisted by different types of nanomaterials and target molecules.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Jing Wei
- Chaoyang District of the Third Hospital, 1268 Jiuzhou Street, Xihu District, Nanchang City, Jiangxi Province, China
| | - Xiaorong Niu
- Chaoyang District of the Third Hospital, 1268 Jiuzhou Street, Xihu District, Nanchang City, Jiangxi Province, China
| | - GuoYin Liu
- Chaoyang District of the Third Hospital, 1268 Jiuzhou Street, Xihu District, Nanchang City, Jiangxi Province, China
| | - Li Yu
- Chaoyang District of the Third Hospital, 1268 Jiuzhou Street, Xihu District, Nanchang City, Jiangxi Province, China
| | - Ying Wu
- Chaoyang District of the Third Hospital, 1268 Jiuzhou Street, Xihu District, Nanchang City, Jiangxi Province, China
| | - Qiang Zhou
- Chaoyang District of the Third Hospital, 1268 Jiuzhou Street, Xihu District, Nanchang City, Jiangxi Province, China
| | - Lu Liu
- Chaoyang District of the Third Hospital, 1268 Jiuzhou Street, Xihu District, Nanchang City, Jiangxi Province, China
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Gopinath SCB, Ismail ZH, Sekiguchi K. Biosensing epidemic and pandemic respiratory viruses: Internet of Things with Gaussian noise channel algorithmic model. Biotechnol Appl Biochem 2022; 69:2507-2516. [PMID: 34894363 DOI: 10.1002/bab.2300] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2021] [Accepted: 12/07/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
The current world condition is dire due to epidemics and pandemics as a result of novel viruses, such as influenza and the coronavirus, causing acute respiratory syndrome. To overcome these critical situations, the current research seeks to generate a common surveillance system with the assistance of a controlled Internet of Things operated under a Gaussian noise channel. To create the model system, a study with an analysis of H1N1 influenza virus determination on an interdigitated electrode (IDE) sensor was validated by current-volt measurements. The preliminary data were generated using hemagglutinin as the target against gold-conjugated aptamer/antibody as the probe, with the transmission pattern showing consistency with the Gaussian noise channel algorithm. A good fit with the algorithmic values was found, displaying a similar pattern to that output from the IDE, indicating reliability. This study can be a model for the surveillance of varied pathogens, including the emergence and reemergence of novel strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Subash C B Gopinath
- Institute of Nano Electronic Engineering, Universiti Malaysia Perlis (UniMAP), Kangar, Perlis, 01000, Malaysia.,Faculty of Chemical Engineering Technology, Universiti Malaysia Perlis (UniMAP), Arau, Perlis, 02600, Malaysia.,Centre of Excellence for Nanobiotechnology and Nanomedicine (CoExNano), Faculty of applied Sciences, AIMST University, Semeling, Kedah, 08100, Malaysia
| | - Zool H Ismail
- Centre for Artificial Intelligence and Robotics, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM), Jalan Sultan Yahya Petra, Kuala Lumpur, 51400, Malaysia
| | - Kazuma Sekiguchi
- Advanced Control Systems Laboratory, Department of Mechanical Systems Engineering, Tokyo City University (TCU), Tamazutsumi Setagaya-ku, Tokyo, 158-8557, Japan
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Ye M, Lin L, Yang W, Gopinath SCB. Enhancing erythrocyte-influenza virus specificity by glycan-conjugated gold nanoparticle: Validation of hemagglutination by aptamer and neuraminidases. Biotechnol Appl Biochem 2021; 69:798-807. [PMID: 33769582 DOI: 10.1002/bab.2152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2021] [Accepted: 03/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
This study demonstrated the terminated sialo-sugar chains (Neu5Acα2,6Gal and Neu5Acα2,3Gal)-mediated specificity enhancement of influenza virus and chicken red blood cell (RBC) by hemagglutination assay. These glycan chains were immobilized on the gold nanoparticle (GNP) to withhold the higher numbers. With the preliminary optimization, a clear button formation with 0.5% RBC was visualized. On the other hand, intact B/Tokio/53/99 with 750 nM hemagglutinin (HA) displayed a nice hemagglutination. The interference on the specificity of RBC and influenza virus was observed by anti-influenza aptamer at the concentration 31 nM; however, there is no hemagglutination prevention was noticed in the presence of complementary aptamer sequences. Spiking GNP-conjugated Neu5Acα2,6Gal or Neu5Acα2,3Gal or a mixture of these two to the reaction promoted the hemagglutination to 63-folds higher with 12 nM virus, whereas under the same condition the heat-inactivated viruses were lost the hemagglutination. Neuraminidases from Clostridium perfringens and Arthrobacter ureafaciens at 0.0025 neuraminidase units are able to abolish the hemagglutination. Other enzymes, Glycopeptidase F (Elizabethkingia meningoseptica) and Endoglycosidase H (Streptomyces plicatus) did not show the changes with agglutination. Obviously, sialyl-Gal-terminated glycan-conjugated GNP amendment has enhanced the specificity of erythrocyte-influenza virus and able to be controlled by aptamer or neuraminidases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meiyi Ye
- Department of Medical Laboratory, Dayi County People's Hospital, Chengdu, Sichuan Province, China
| | - Lei Lin
- Department of Medical Laboratory, Dayi County People's Hospital, Chengdu, Sichuan Province, China
| | - Wei Yang
- Department of Medical Laboratory, Dayi County People's Hospital, Chengdu, Sichuan Province, China
| | - Subash C B Gopinath
- Faculty of Chemical Engineering Technology, Universiti Malaysia Perlis (UniMAP), Arau, Perlis, 02600, Malaysia.,Institute of Nano Electronic Engineering, Universiti Malaysia Perlis (UniMAP), Kangar, Perlis, 01000, Malaysia
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Shen KM, Sabbavarapu NM, Fu CY, Jan JT, Wang JR, Hung SC, Lee GB. An integrated microfluidic system for rapid detection and multiple subtyping of influenza A viruses by using glycan-coated magnetic beads and RT-PCR. LAB ON A CHIP 2019; 19:1277-1286. [PMID: 30839009 DOI: 10.1039/c8lc01369a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
The influenza A (InfA) virus, which poses a significant global public health threat, is routinely classified into "subtypes" based on viral hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA) antigens. Because there are nearly 200 viral subtypes, current diagnostic approaches require multiplexing or array systems to cover various subtypes of HA and NA. A microfluidic chip featuring a HA × NA array was consequently developed herein for diagnosis and subtyping of InfA viruses via the use of glycan-coated magnetic beads followed by reverse transcription (RT) polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Up to 12 InfA subtypes were simultaneously detected in an automated fashion in less than 100 minutes on this microfluidic platform, representing a significant improvement in analysis speed compared to benchtop RT-PCR and chip-based microarray systems. The limits of detection of the RT-PCR assays ranged from 40 to 3000 copy numbers for the different subtypes of InfA viruses, around two orders of magnitude higher than in previous studies using microfluidic technologies. In summary, the array-type microfluidic chip system provides a rapid, sensitive, and fully automated approach for detection and multiple subtyping of InfA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kao-Mai Shen
- Department of Power Mechanical Engineering, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu, 30013 Taiwan.
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Uda M, Gopinath SC, Hasfalina C, Faridah S, Bunawan S, Sabrina WN, Parmin N, Hashim U, Afnan Uda M, Mazidah M. Production and purification of antibody by immunizing rabbit with rice tungro bacilliform and rice tungro spherical viruses. Process Biochem 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.procbio.2018.02.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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Hassanpour S, Baradaran B, Hejazi M, Hasanzadeh M, Mokhtarzadeh A, de la Guardia M. Recent trends in rapid detection of influenza infections by bio and nanobiosensor. Trends Analyt Chem 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trac.2017.11.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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Vidic J, Manzano M, Chang CM, Jaffrezic-Renault N. Advanced biosensors for detection of pathogens related to livestock and poultry. Vet Res 2017; 48:11. [PMID: 28222780 PMCID: PMC5320782 DOI: 10.1186/s13567-017-0418-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2016] [Accepted: 01/23/2017] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Infectious animal diseases caused by pathogenic microorganisms such as bacteria and viruses threaten the health and well-being of wildlife, livestock, and human populations, limit productivity and increase significantly economic losses to each sector. The pathogen detection is an important step for the diagnostics, successful treatment of animal infection diseases and control management in farms and field conditions. Current techniques employed to diagnose pathogens in livestock and poultry include classical plate-based methods and conventional biochemical methods as enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA). These methods are time-consuming and frequently incapable to distinguish between low and highly pathogenic strains. Molecular techniques such as polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and real time PCR (RT-PCR) have also been proposed to be used to diagnose and identify relevant infectious disease in animals. However these DNA-based methodologies need isolated genetic materials and sophisticated instruments, being not suitable for in field analysis. Consequently, there is strong interest for developing new swift point-of-care biosensing systems for early detection of animal diseases with high sensitivity and specificity. In this review, we provide an overview of the innovative biosensing systems that can be applied for livestock pathogen detection. Different sensing strategies based on DNA receptors, glycan, aptamers and antibodies are presented. Besides devices still at development level some are validated according to standards of the World Organization for Animal Health and are commercially available. Especially, paper-based platforms proposed as an affordable, rapid and easy to perform sensing systems for implementation in field condition are included in this review.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jasmina Vidic
- Virologie et Immunologie Moléculaires, UR892, INRA, Paris Saclay University, 78350 Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | - Marisa Manzano
- Dipartimento di Scienze AgroAlimentari, Ambientali e Animali, Università di Udine, 33100 Udine, Italy
| | - Chung-Ming Chang
- Department of Medical Biotechnology and Laboratory Science, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Tao-Yuan, 33302 Taiwan
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Wang S, Gao S, Sun S, Yang Y, Zhang Y, Liu J, Dong Y, Su H, Tan T. A molecular recognition assisted colorimetric aptasensor for tetracycline. RSC Adv 2016. [DOI: 10.1039/c6ra08262a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Based on the study of intrinsic conformational structure-dependent molecular recognition between tetracycline (TC) and anti-TC aptamers, herein, we focus on the classic gold nanoparticle (AuNPs)-based colorimetric aptasensor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sai Wang
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Bioprocess
- College of Life Science and Technology
- Beijing University of Chemical Technology
- Beijing 100029
- P. R. China
| | - Song Gao
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Bioprocess
- College of Life Science and Technology
- Beijing University of Chemical Technology
- Beijing 100029
- P. R. China
| | - Shuai Sun
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Bioprocess
- College of Life Science and Technology
- Beijing University of Chemical Technology
- Beijing 100029
- P. R. China
| | - Yan Yang
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Bioprocess
- College of Life Science and Technology
- Beijing University of Chemical Technology
- Beijing 100029
- P. R. China
| | - Yang Zhang
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Bioprocess
- College of Life Science and Technology
- Beijing University of Chemical Technology
- Beijing 100029
- P. R. China
| | - Jiahui Liu
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Bioprocess
- College of Life Science and Technology
- Beijing University of Chemical Technology
- Beijing 100029
- P. R. China
| | - Yiyang Dong
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Bioprocess
- College of Life Science and Technology
- Beijing University of Chemical Technology
- Beijing 100029
- P. R. China
| | - Haijia Su
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Bioprocess
- College of Life Science and Technology
- Beijing University of Chemical Technology
- Beijing 100029
- P. R. China
| | - Tianwei Tan
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Bioprocess
- College of Life Science and Technology
- Beijing University of Chemical Technology
- Beijing 100029
- P. R. China
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Chen L, Neethirajan S. A homogenous fluorescence quenching based assay for specific and sensitive detection of influenza virus A hemagglutinin antigen. SENSORS 2015; 15:8852-65. [PMID: 25884789 PMCID: PMC4431298 DOI: 10.3390/s150408852] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2015] [Revised: 04/02/2015] [Accepted: 04/09/2015] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Influenza pandemics cause millions of deaths worldwide. Effective surveillance is required to prevent their spread and facilitate the development of appropriate vaccines. In this study, we report the fabrication of a homogenous fluorescence-quenching-based assay for specific and sensitive detection of influenza virus surface antigen hemagglutinins (HAs). The core of the assay is composed of two nanoprobes namely the glycan-conjugated highly luminescent quantum dots (Gly-QDs), and the HA-specific antibody-modified gold nanoparticle (Ab-Au NPs). When exposed to strain-specific HA, a binding event between the HA and the two nanoprobes takes place, resulting in the formation of a sandwich complex which subsequently brings the two nanoprobes closer together. This causes a decrease in QDs fluorescence intensity due to a non-radiative energy transfer from QDs to Au NPs. A resulting correlation between the targets HA concentrations and fluorescence changes can be observed. Furthermore, by utilizing the specific interaction between HA and glycan with sialic acid residues, the assay is able to distinguish HAs originated from viral subtypes H1 (human) and H5 (avian). The detection limits in solution are found to be low nanomolar and picomolar level for sensing H1-HA and H5-HA, respectively. Slight increase in assay sensitivity was found in terms of detection limit while exposing the assay in the HA spiked in human sera solution. We believe that the developed assay could serve as a feasible and sensitive diagnostic tool for influenza virus detection and discrimination, with further improvement on the architectures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Longyan Chen
- BioNano Laboratory, School of Engineering, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada.
| | - Suresh Neethirajan
- BioNano Laboratory, School of Engineering, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada.
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Sensing strategies for influenza surveillance. Biosens Bioelectron 2014; 61:357-69. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2014.05.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2013] [Revised: 04/12/2014] [Accepted: 05/11/2014] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
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Gopinath SC, Tang TH, Citartan M, Chen Y, Lakshmipriya T. Current aspects in immunosensors. Biosens Bioelectron 2014; 57:292-302. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2014.02.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2013] [Revised: 02/11/2014] [Accepted: 02/11/2014] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
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Gopinath SCB, Lakshmipriya T, Awazu K. Colorimetric detection of controlled assembly and disassembly of aptamers on unmodified gold nanoparticles. Biosens Bioelectron 2014; 51:115-23. [PMID: 23948242 PMCID: PMC7125824 DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2013.07.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 147] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2013] [Revised: 05/24/2013] [Accepted: 07/21/2013] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Aptamers are nucleic acid ligands that are generated artificially by in vitro selection and behave similar to antibodies. The development of aptamer-based sensing systems or strategies has been in vogue for the past few decades, because aptamers are smaller in size, stable, cheaper and undergo easier modifications. Owing to these advantages, several facile aptamer-based colorimetric strategies have been created by controlling the assembly and disassembly of aptamers on unmodified gold nanoparticle probes. As these kinds of assay systems are rapid and can be visualized unaided by instruments, they have recently become an attractive method of choice. The formation of purple-colored aggregates (attraction) from the red dispersed (repulsion) state of GNPs in the presence of mono- or divalent ions is the key principle behind this assay. Due to its simplicity and versatility, this assay can be an alternative to existing diagnostic assays. Here, we have investigated the critical elements involved in colorimetric assays, and have screened different proteins and small ligands to evaluate biofouling on GNPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Subash C B Gopinath
- Electronics and Photonics Research Institute, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology, Central 5, 1-1-1 Higashi, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8565, Japan.
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Gopinath SCB, Kumar PKR. Biomolecular discrimination analyses by surface plasmon resonance. Analyst 2014; 139:2678-82. [DOI: 10.1039/c3an02052e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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An angular fluidic channel for prism-free surface-plasmon-assisted fluorescence capturing. Nat Commun 2013; 4:2855. [DOI: 10.1038/ncomms3855] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2013] [Accepted: 11/01/2013] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
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Evaluation of anti-A/Udorn/307/1972 antibody specificity to influenza A/H3N2 viruses using an evanescent-field coupled waveguide-mode sensor. PLoS One 2013; 8:e81396. [PMID: 24339924 PMCID: PMC3858306 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0081396] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2013] [Accepted: 10/11/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Discrimination of closely related strains is a key issue, particularly for infectious diseases whose incidence fluctuates according to variations in the season and evolutionary changes. Among infectious diseases, influenza viral infections are a worldwide cause of pandemic disease and mortality. With the emergence of different influenza strains, it is vital to develop a method using antibodies that can differentiate between viral types and subtypes. Ideally, such a system would also be user friendly. In this study, a polyclonal antibody generated against A/Udorn/307/1972 (H3N2) was used as a probe to distinguish between influenza H3N2 viruses based on the interaction between the antibody and hemagglutinin, demonstrating its applicability for viral discrimination. Clear discrimination was demonstrated using an evanescent-field-coupled waveguide-mode sensor, which has appealing characteristics over other methods in the viewpoint of improving the sensitivity, measurement time, portability and usability. Further supporting evidence was obtained using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays, hemagglutination-inhibition assays, and infectivity neutralization assays. The results obtained indicate that the polyclonal antibody used here is a potential probe for distinguishing influenza viruses and, with the aid of a handheld sensor it could be used for influenza surveillance.
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Gopinath SCB, Awazu K, Fujimaki M, Shimizu K, Shima T. Observations of immuno-gold conjugates on influenza viruses using waveguide-mode sensors. PLoS One 2013; 8:e69121. [PMID: 23874887 PMCID: PMC3708897 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0069121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2013] [Accepted: 06/06/2013] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Gold nanoparticles were conjugated to an antibody (immuno-AuNP) against A/Udorn/307/1972 (H3N2) influenza virus to detect viruses on a sensing plate designed for an evanescent field-coupled waveguide-mode sensor. Experiments were conducted using human influenza A/H3N2 strains, and immuno-AuNP could detect 8×10(5) PFU/ml (40 pg/µl) intact A/Udorn/307/1972 and 120 pg/µl A/Brisbane/10/2007. Furthermore, increased signal magnitude was achieved in the presence of non-ionic detergent, as the virtual detection level was increased to 8×10(4) PFU/ml A/Udorn/307/1972. Immuno-AuNPs were then complexed with viruses to permit direct observation, and they formed a ring of confined nanodots on the membrane of both intact and detergent-treated viruses as directly visualized by scanning electron microscopy. With this complex the detection limit was improved further to 8×10(3) PFU/ml on anti-rabbit IgG immobilized sensing plate. These strategies introduce methods for observing trapped intact viruses on the sensing plates generated for optical systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Subash C. B. Gopinath
- Electronics and Photonics Research Institute, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Koichi Awazu
- Electronics and Photonics Research Institute, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Makoto Fujimaki
- Electronics and Photonics Research Institute, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Kazufumi Shimizu
- Open Research Center for Genome and Infectious Disease Control, Nihon University School of Medicine, Itabashi-ku, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Takayuki Shima
- Electronics and Photonics Research Institute, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
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