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Parladé E, García-Leon A, Voltà-Durán E, Unzueta U, Mangues R, Casanova I, Villaverde A, Vázquez E. Paradoxical cell targeting of calreticulin-empowered, protein-only nanoparticles. Eur J Pharm Biopharm 2024:114410. [PMID: 39004320 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejpb.2024.114410] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2024] [Revised: 07/04/2024] [Accepted: 07/10/2024] [Indexed: 07/16/2024]
Abstract
Surface-exposed calreticulin (CRT) serves as a crucial cell damage-associated molecular pattern for immunogenic apoptosis, by generating an "eat me" signal to macrophages. Aiming at precision immunotherapies we intended to artificially label tumoral cells in vivo with a recombinant CRT, in a targeted way. For that, we have constructed a CRT fusion protein intended to surface attach CXCR4+ cancer cells, to stimulate their immunological destruction. As a targeting ligand of the CRT construct and to drive its specific cell adhesion, we used the peptide V1, a derivative of the vMIP-II cytokine and an antagonist of CXCR4. The modular protein tends to self-assemble as regular 16 nm nanoparticles, assisted by ionic Zn. Through both in vivo and in vitro experiments, we have determined that CRT itself confers cell targeting capabilities to the construct overcoming those of V1, that are only moderate. In particular, CRT binds HeLa cells in absence of further internalization, by a route fully independent of CXCR4. Furthermore, by cytometry in THP-1 cells, we observed that the binding of the protein is preferential for dead cells over live cells, a fact that cannot be associated to a mere artefactual adsorption. These data are discussed in the context of the oligomerizing properties of CRT and the potential clinical applicability of proteins and protein materials functionalized with this novel cell surface ligand.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eloi Parladé
- Institut de Biotecnologia i de Biomedicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Plaça Cívica s/n, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain; CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), C/ Monforte de Lemos 3-5, 28029 Madrid, Spain.
| | - Annabel García-Leon
- CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), C/ Monforte de Lemos 3-5, 28029 Madrid, Spain; Institut de Recerca Sant Pau (IR SANT PAU), Sant Quintí 77-79, 08041 Barcelona, Spain; Josep Carreras Leukaemia Research Institute (IJC), Carretera de Can Ruti, Badalona, 08916, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Eric Voltà-Durán
- Institut de Biotecnologia i de Biomedicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Plaça Cívica s/n, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain; CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), C/ Monforte de Lemos 3-5, 28029 Madrid, Spain; Departament de Genètica i de Microbiologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Plaça Cívica s/n, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Ugutz Unzueta
- CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), C/ Monforte de Lemos 3-5, 28029 Madrid, Spain; Institut de Recerca Sant Pau (IR SANT PAU), Sant Quintí 77-79, 08041 Barcelona, Spain; Josep Carreras Leukaemia Research Institute (IJC), Carretera de Can Ruti, Badalona, 08916, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Ramon Mangues
- CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), C/ Monforte de Lemos 3-5, 28029 Madrid, Spain; Institut de Recerca Sant Pau (IR SANT PAU), Sant Quintí 77-79, 08041 Barcelona, Spain; Josep Carreras Leukaemia Research Institute (IJC), Carretera de Can Ruti, Badalona, 08916, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Isolda Casanova
- CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), C/ Monforte de Lemos 3-5, 28029 Madrid, Spain; Institut de Recerca Sant Pau (IR SANT PAU), Sant Quintí 77-79, 08041 Barcelona, Spain; Josep Carreras Leukaemia Research Institute (IJC), Carretera de Can Ruti, Badalona, 08916, Barcelona, Spain.
| | - Antonio Villaverde
- Institut de Biotecnologia i de Biomedicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Plaça Cívica s/n, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain; CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), C/ Monforte de Lemos 3-5, 28029 Madrid, Spain; Departament de Genètica i de Microbiologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Plaça Cívica s/n, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain.
| | - Esther Vázquez
- Institut de Biotecnologia i de Biomedicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Plaça Cívica s/n, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain; CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), C/ Monforte de Lemos 3-5, 28029 Madrid, Spain; Departament de Genètica i de Microbiologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Plaça Cívica s/n, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain
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Fernández-Gómez P, Pérez de la Lastra Aranda C, Tosat-Bitrián C, Bueso de Barrio JA, Thompson S, Sot B, Salas G, Somoza Á, Espinosa A, Castellanos M, Palomo V. Nanomedical research and development in Spain: improving the treatment of diseases from the nanoscale. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2023; 11:1191327. [PMID: 37545884 PMCID: PMC10401050 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2023.1191327] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2023] [Accepted: 05/23/2023] [Indexed: 08/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The new and unique possibilities that nanomaterials offer have greatly impacted biomedicine, from the treatment and diagnosis of diseases, to the specific and optimized delivery of therapeutic agents. Technological advances in the synthesis, characterization, standardization, and therapeutic performance of nanoparticles have enabled the approval of several nanomedicines and novel applications. Discoveries continue to rise exponentially in all disease areas, from cancer to neurodegenerative diseases. In Spain, there is a substantial net of researchers involved in the development of nanodiagnostics and nanomedicines. In this review, we summarize the state of the art of nanotechnology, focusing on nanoparticles, for the treatment of diseases in Spain (2017-2022), and give a perspective on the future trends and direction that nanomedicine research is taking.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paula Fernández-Gómez
- Instituto Madrileño de Estudios Avanzados en Nanociencia (IMDEA Nanociencia), Madrid, Spain
| | - Carmen Pérez de la Lastra Aranda
- Instituto Madrileño de Estudios Avanzados en Nanociencia (IMDEA Nanociencia), Madrid, Spain
- Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas Margarita Salas-CSIC, Madrid, Spain
| | - Carlota Tosat-Bitrián
- Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas Margarita Salas-CSIC, Madrid, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | | | - Sebastián Thompson
- Instituto Madrileño de Estudios Avanzados en Nanociencia (IMDEA Nanociencia), Madrid, Spain
| | - Begoña Sot
- Instituto Madrileño de Estudios Avanzados en Nanociencia (IMDEA Nanociencia), Madrid, Spain
- Centro de Investigaciones Energéticas, Medioambientales y Tecnológicas (CIEMAT), Unidad de Innovación Biomédica, Madrid, Spain
- Advanced Therapies Unit, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Fundación Jiménez Díaz (IIS-FJ UAM), Madrid, Spain
| | - Gorka Salas
- Instituto Madrileño de Estudios Avanzados en Nanociencia (IMDEA Nanociencia), Madrid, Spain
- Unidad Asociada al Centro Nacional de Biotecnología (CSIC), Madrid, Spain
| | - Álvaro Somoza
- Instituto Madrileño de Estudios Avanzados en Nanociencia (IMDEA Nanociencia), Madrid, Spain
- Unidad Asociada al Centro Nacional de Biotecnología (CSIC), Madrid, Spain
| | - Ana Espinosa
- Instituto Madrileño de Estudios Avanzados en Nanociencia (IMDEA Nanociencia), Madrid, Spain
- Instituto de Ciencia de Materiales de Madrid, ICMM-CSIC, Madrid, Spain
| | - Milagros Castellanos
- Instituto Madrileño de Estudios Avanzados en Nanociencia (IMDEA Nanociencia), Madrid, Spain
| | - Valle Palomo
- Instituto Madrileño de Estudios Avanzados en Nanociencia (IMDEA Nanociencia), Madrid, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
- Unidad Asociada al Centro Nacional de Biotecnología (CSIC), Madrid, Spain
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Martínez-Torró C, Alba-Castellón L, Carrasco-Díaz LM, Serna N, Imedio L, Gallardo A, Casanova I, Unzueta U, Vázquez E, Mangues R, Villaverde A. Lymphocyte infiltration and antitumoral effect promoted by cytotoxic inflammatory proteins formulated as self-assembling, protein-only nanoparticles. Biomed Pharmacother 2023; 164:114976. [PMID: 37276641 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2023.114976] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2023] [Revised: 05/24/2023] [Accepted: 05/30/2023] [Indexed: 06/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Two human proteins involved in the inflammatory cell death, namely Gasdermin D (GSDMD) and the Mixed Lineage Kinase Domain-Like (MLKL) protein have been engineered to accommodate an efficient ligand of the tumoral cell marker CXCR4, and a set of additional peptide agents that allow their spontaneous self-assembling. Upon production in bacterial cells and further purification, both proteins organized as stable nanoparticles of 46 and 54 nm respectively, that show, in this form, a moderate but dose-dependent cytotoxicity in cell culture. In vivo, and when administered in mouse models of colorectal cancer through repeated doses, the nanoscale forms of tumor-targeted GSDMD and, at a lesser extent, of MLKL promoted CD8+ and CD20+ lymphocyte infiltration in the tumor and an important reduction of tumor size, in absence of systemic toxicity. The potential of these novel pharmacological agents as anticancer drugs is discussed in the context of synergistic approaches to more effective cancer treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos Martínez-Torró
- Institut de Biotecnologia i de Biomedicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain; CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain
| | - Lorena Alba-Castellón
- CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain; Institut d'Investigació Biomèdica Sant Pau (IIB SANT PAU), Barcelona, Spain; Josep Carreras Leukaemia Research Institute (IJC), Badalona, Spain
| | - Luis Miguel Carrasco-Díaz
- Institut d'Investigació Biomèdica Sant Pau (IIB SANT PAU), Barcelona, Spain; Josep Carreras Leukaemia Research Institute (IJC), Badalona, Spain
| | - Naroa Serna
- Institut de Biotecnologia i de Biomedicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain; CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain
| | - Laura Imedio
- Institut d'Investigació Biomèdica Sant Pau (IIB SANT PAU), Barcelona, Spain; Josep Carreras Leukaemia Research Institute (IJC), Badalona, Spain
| | - Alberto Gallardo
- CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain; Department of Pathology, Hospital de la Santa Creu i Sant Pau, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Isolda Casanova
- Institut d'Investigació Biomèdica Sant Pau (IIB SANT PAU), Barcelona, Spain; Josep Carreras Leukaemia Research Institute (IJC), Badalona, Spain
| | - Ugutz Unzueta
- CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain; Institut d'Investigació Biomèdica Sant Pau (IIB SANT PAU), Barcelona, Spain; Josep Carreras Leukaemia Research Institute (IJC), Badalona, Spain
| | - Esther Vázquez
- Institut de Biotecnologia i de Biomedicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain; CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain; Departament de Genètica i de Microbiologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain
| | - Ramón Mangues
- CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain; Institut d'Investigació Biomèdica Sant Pau (IIB SANT PAU), Barcelona, Spain; Josep Carreras Leukaemia Research Institute (IJC), Badalona, Spain.
| | - Antonio Villaverde
- Institut de Biotecnologia i de Biomedicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain; CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain; Departament de Genètica i de Microbiologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain.
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T22-PE24-H6 Nanotoxin Selectively Kills CXCR4-High Expressing AML Patient Cells In Vitro and Potently Blocks Dissemination In Vivo. Pharmaceutics 2023; 15:pharmaceutics15030727. [PMID: 36986589 PMCID: PMC10054149 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics15030727] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2023] [Revised: 02/15/2023] [Accepted: 02/20/2023] [Indexed: 02/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Despite advances in the development of targeted therapies for acute myeloid leukemia (AML), most patients relapse. For that reason, it is still necessary to develop novel therapies that improve treatment effectiveness and overcome drug resistance. We developed T22-PE24-H6, a protein nanoparticle that contains the exotoxin A from the bacterium Pseudomonas aeruginosa and is able to specifically deliver this cytotoxic domain to CXCR4+ leukemic cells. Next, we evaluated the selective delivery and antitumor activity of T22-PE24-H6 in CXCR4+ AML cell lines and BM samples from AML patients. Moreover, we assessed the in vivo antitumor effect of this nanotoxin in a disseminated mouse model generated from CXCR4+ AML cells. T22-PE24-H6 showed a potent, CXCR4-dependent antineoplastic effect in vitro in the MONO-MAC-6 AML cell line. In addition, mice treated with nanotoxins in daily doses reduced the dissemination of CXCR4+ AML cells compared to buffer-treated mice, as shown by the significant decrease in BLI signaling. Furthermore, we did not observe any sign of toxicity or changes in mouse body weight, biochemical parameters, or histopathology in normal tissues. Finally, T22-PE24-H6 exhibited a significant inhibition of cell viability in CXCR4high AML patient samples but showed no activity in CXCR4low samples. These data strongly support the use of T22-PE24-H6 therapy to benefit high-CXCR4-expressing AML patients.
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Medina-Gutiérrez E, García-León A, Gallardo A, Álamo P, Alba-Castellón L, Unzueta U, Villaverde A, Vázquez E, Casanova I, Mangues R. Potent Anticancer Activity of CXCR4-Targeted Nanostructured Toxins in Aggressive Endometrial Cancer Models. Cancers (Basel) 2022; 15:cancers15010085. [PMID: 36612081 PMCID: PMC9818013 DOI: 10.3390/cancers15010085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2022] [Revised: 12/20/2022] [Accepted: 12/20/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Patients with advanced endometrial cancer (EC) show poor outcomes. Thus, the development of new therapeutic approaches to prevent metastasis development in high-risk patients is an unmet need. CXCR4 is overexpressed in EC tumor tissue, epitomizing an unexploited therapeutic target for this malignancy. The in vitro antitumor activity of two CXCR4-targeted nanoparticles, including either the C. diphtheriae (T22-DITOX-H6) or P. aeruginosa (T22-PE24-H6) toxin, was evaluated using viability assays. Apoptotic activation was assessed by DAPI and caspase-3 and PARP cleavage in cell blocks. Both nanotoxins were repeatedly administrated to a subcutaneous EC mouse model, whereas T22-DITOX-H6 was also used in a highly metastatic EC orthotopic model. Tumor burden was assessed through bioluminescence, while metastatic foci and toxicity were studied using histological or immunohistochemical analysis. We found that both nanotoxins exerted a potent antitumor effect both in vitro and in vivo via apoptosis and extended the survival of nanotoxin-treated mice without inducing any off-target toxicity. Repeated T22-DITOX-H6 administration in the metastatic model induced a dramatic reduction in tumor burden while significantly blocking peritoneal, lung and liver metastasis without systemic toxicity. Both nanotoxins, but especially T22-DITOX-H6, represent a promising therapeutic alternative for EC patients that have a dismal prognosis and lack effective therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Esperanza Medina-Gutiérrez
- Oncogenesis and Antitumor Drugs Group, Institut d’Investigació Biomèdica Sant Pau (IIB Sant Pau), 08041 Barcelona, Spain
- Oncogenesis and Antitumor Drugs Group, Institut de Recerca Contra la Leucèmia Josep Carreras, 08025 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Annabel García-León
- Oncogenesis and Antitumor Drugs Group, Institut d’Investigació Biomèdica Sant Pau (IIB Sant Pau), 08041 Barcelona, Spain
- Oncogenesis and Antitumor Drugs Group, Institut de Recerca Contra la Leucèmia Josep Carreras, 08025 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Alberto Gallardo
- Oncogenesis and Antitumor Drugs Group, Institut d’Investigació Biomèdica Sant Pau (IIB Sant Pau), 08041 Barcelona, Spain
- Department of Pathology, Hospital de la Santa Creu i Sant Pau, 08041 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Patricia Álamo
- Oncogenesis and Antitumor Drugs Group, Institut d’Investigació Biomèdica Sant Pau (IIB Sant Pau), 08041 Barcelona, Spain
- Oncogenesis and Antitumor Drugs Group, Institut de Recerca Contra la Leucèmia Josep Carreras, 08025 Barcelona, Spain
- CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), 28029 Madrid, Spain
| | - Lorena Alba-Castellón
- Oncogenesis and Antitumor Drugs Group, Institut d’Investigació Biomèdica Sant Pau (IIB Sant Pau), 08041 Barcelona, Spain
- Oncogenesis and Antitumor Drugs Group, Institut de Recerca Contra la Leucèmia Josep Carreras, 08025 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Ugutz Unzueta
- Oncogenesis and Antitumor Drugs Group, Institut d’Investigació Biomèdica Sant Pau (IIB Sant Pau), 08041 Barcelona, Spain
- Oncogenesis and Antitumor Drugs Group, Institut de Recerca Contra la Leucèmia Josep Carreras, 08025 Barcelona, Spain
- CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), 28029 Madrid, Spain
- Departament de Genètica i de Microbiologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain
| | - Antonio Villaverde
- CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), 28029 Madrid, Spain
- Departament de Genètica i de Microbiologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain
- Institut de Biotecnologia i de Biomedicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain
| | - Esther Vázquez
- CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), 28029 Madrid, Spain
- Departament de Genètica i de Microbiologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain
- Institut de Biotecnologia i de Biomedicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain
| | - Isolda Casanova
- Oncogenesis and Antitumor Drugs Group, Institut d’Investigació Biomèdica Sant Pau (IIB Sant Pau), 08041 Barcelona, Spain
- Oncogenesis and Antitumor Drugs Group, Institut de Recerca Contra la Leucèmia Josep Carreras, 08025 Barcelona, Spain
- CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), 28029 Madrid, Spain
- Correspondence: (I.C.); (R.M.)
| | - Ramon Mangues
- Oncogenesis and Antitumor Drugs Group, Institut d’Investigació Biomèdica Sant Pau (IIB Sant Pau), 08041 Barcelona, Spain
- Oncogenesis and Antitumor Drugs Group, Institut de Recerca Contra la Leucèmia Josep Carreras, 08025 Barcelona, Spain
- CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), 28029 Madrid, Spain
- Correspondence: (I.C.); (R.M.)
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Voltà-Durán E, Sánchez JM, Parladé E, Serna N, Vazquez E, Unzueta U, Villaverde A. The Diphtheria Toxin Translocation Domain Impairs Receptor Selectivity in Cancer Cell-Targeted Protein Nanoparticles. Pharmaceutics 2022; 14:pharmaceutics14122644. [PMID: 36559138 PMCID: PMC9781143 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics14122644] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2022] [Revised: 11/20/2022] [Accepted: 11/23/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Protein-based materials intended as nanostructured drugs or drug carriers are progressively gaining interest in nanomedicine, since their structure, assembly and cellular interactivity can be tailored by recruiting functional domains. The main bottleneck in the development of deliverable protein materials is the lysosomal degradation that follows endosome maturation. This is especially disappointing in the case of receptor-targeted protein constructs, which, while being highly promising and in demand in precision medicines, enter cells via endosomal/lysosomal routes. In the search for suitable protein agents that might promote endosome escape, we have explored the translocation domain (TD) of the diphtheria toxin as a functional domain in CXCR4-targeted oligomeric nanoparticles designed for cancer therapies. The pharmacological interest of such protein materials could be largely enhanced by improving their proteolytic stability. The incorporation of TD into the building blocks enhances the amount of the material detected inside of exposed CXCR4+ cells up to around 25-fold, in absence of cytotoxicity. This rise cannot be accounted for by endosomal escape, since the lysosomal degradation of the new construct decreases only moderately. On the other hand, a significant loss in the specificity of the CXCR4-dependent cellular penetration indicates the unexpected role of the toxin segment as a cell-penetrating peptide in a dose-dependent and receptor-independent fashion. These data reveal that the diphtheria toxin TD displayed on receptor-targeted oligomeric nanoparticles partially abolishes the exquisite receptor specificity of the parental material and it induces nonspecific internalization in mammalian cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric Voltà-Durán
- Institut de Biotecnologia i de Biomedicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain
- CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain
- Departament de Genètica i de Microbiologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Julieta M. Sánchez
- Institut de Biotecnologia i de Biomedicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain
- CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain
- Departament de Genètica i de Microbiologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biológicas y Tecnológicas (IIBYT), CONICET-Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Av. Velez Sarsfield 1611, Córdoba X5016GCA, Argentina
| | - Eloi Parladé
- Institut de Biotecnologia i de Biomedicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain
- CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain
- Departament de Genètica i de Microbiologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Naroa Serna
- Institut de Biotecnologia i de Biomedicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain
- CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain
- Departament de Genètica i de Microbiologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Esther Vazquez
- Institut de Biotecnologia i de Biomedicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain
- CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain
- Departament de Genètica i de Microbiologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Ugutz Unzueta
- CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain
- Departament de Genètica i de Microbiologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain
- Institut d’Investigació Biomèdica Sant Pau (IIB SANT PAU), Sant Quintí 77-79, 08041 Barcelona, Spain
- Josep Carreras Leukaemia Research Institute, 08025 Barcelona, Spain
- Correspondence: (U.U.); (A.V.)
| | - Antonio Villaverde
- Institut de Biotecnologia i de Biomedicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain
- CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain
- Departament de Genètica i de Microbiologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain
- Correspondence: (U.U.); (A.V.)
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Parladé E, Voltà-Durán E, Cano-Garrido O, Sánchez JM, Unzueta U, López-Laguna H, Serna N, Cano M, Rodríguez-Mariscal M, Vazquez E, Villaverde A. An In Silico Methodology That Facilitates Decision Making in the Engineering of Nanoscale Protein Materials. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:4958. [PMID: 35563346 PMCID: PMC9099527 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23094958] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2022] [Revised: 04/25/2022] [Accepted: 04/28/2022] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Under the need for new functional and biocompatible materials for biomedical applications, protein engineering allows the design of assemblable polypeptides, which, as convenient building blocks of supramolecular complexes, can be produced in recombinant cells by simple and scalable methodologies. However, the stability of such materials is often overlooked or disregarded, becoming a potential bottleneck in the development and viability of novel products. In this context, we propose a design strategy based on in silico tools to detect instability areas in protein materials and to facilitate the decision making in the rational mutagenesis aimed to increase their stability and solubility. As a case study, we demonstrate the potential of this methodology to improve the stability of a humanized scaffold protein (a domain of the human nidogen), with the ability to oligomerize into regular nanoparticles usable to deliver payload drugs to tumor cells. Several nidogen mutants suggested by the method showed important and measurable improvements in their structural stability while retaining the functionalities and production yields of the original protein. Then, we propose the procedure developed here as a cost-effective routine tool in the design and optimization of multimeric protein materials prior to any experimental testing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eloi Parladé
- CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), C/Monforte de Lemos 3-5, 28029 Madrid, Spain; (E.V.-D.); (J.M.S.); (U.U.); (H.L.-L.); (E.V.)
- Institut de Biotecnologia i de Biomedicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain
| | - Eric Voltà-Durán
- CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), C/Monforte de Lemos 3-5, 28029 Madrid, Spain; (E.V.-D.); (J.M.S.); (U.U.); (H.L.-L.); (E.V.)
- Institut de Biotecnologia i de Biomedicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain
- Departament de Genètica i de Microbiologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain
| | - Olivia Cano-Garrido
- Nanoligent S.L., Eureka Building, Av. de Can Doménech s/n, Campus de la UAB, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain; (O.C.-G.); (N.S.); (M.C.); (M.R.-M.)
| | - Julieta M. Sánchez
- CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), C/Monforte de Lemos 3-5, 28029 Madrid, Spain; (E.V.-D.); (J.M.S.); (U.U.); (H.L.-L.); (E.V.)
- Institut de Biotecnologia i de Biomedicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain
- Departament de Genètica i de Microbiologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain
- Departamento de Química, Cátedra de Química Biológica, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Físicas y Naturales, ICTA, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Av. Vélez Sársfield 1611, Córdoba 5016, Argentina
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biológicas y Tecnológicas (IIByT), CONICET-Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Córdoba 5016, Argentina
| | - Ugutz Unzueta
- CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), C/Monforte de Lemos 3-5, 28029 Madrid, Spain; (E.V.-D.); (J.M.S.); (U.U.); (H.L.-L.); (E.V.)
- Departament de Genètica i de Microbiologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain
- Biomedical Research Institute Sant Pau (IIB Sant Pau), Sant Antoni Ma Claret 167, 08025 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Hèctor López-Laguna
- CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), C/Monforte de Lemos 3-5, 28029 Madrid, Spain; (E.V.-D.); (J.M.S.); (U.U.); (H.L.-L.); (E.V.)
- Institut de Biotecnologia i de Biomedicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain
- Departament de Genètica i de Microbiologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain
| | - Naroa Serna
- Nanoligent S.L., Eureka Building, Av. de Can Doménech s/n, Campus de la UAB, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain; (O.C.-G.); (N.S.); (M.C.); (M.R.-M.)
| | - Montserrat Cano
- Nanoligent S.L., Eureka Building, Av. de Can Doménech s/n, Campus de la UAB, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain; (O.C.-G.); (N.S.); (M.C.); (M.R.-M.)
| | - Manuel Rodríguez-Mariscal
- Nanoligent S.L., Eureka Building, Av. de Can Doménech s/n, Campus de la UAB, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain; (O.C.-G.); (N.S.); (M.C.); (M.R.-M.)
| | - Esther Vazquez
- CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), C/Monforte de Lemos 3-5, 28029 Madrid, Spain; (E.V.-D.); (J.M.S.); (U.U.); (H.L.-L.); (E.V.)
- Institut de Biotecnologia i de Biomedicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain
- Departament de Genètica i de Microbiologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain
| | - Antonio Villaverde
- CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), C/Monforte de Lemos 3-5, 28029 Madrid, Spain; (E.V.-D.); (J.M.S.); (U.U.); (H.L.-L.); (E.V.)
- Institut de Biotecnologia i de Biomedicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain
- Departament de Genètica i de Microbiologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain
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8
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Serna N, Carratalá JV, Conchillo-Solé O, Martínez-Torró C, Unzueta U, Mangues R, Ferrer-Miralles N, Daura X, Vázquez E, Villaverde A. Antibacterial Activity of T22, a Specific Peptidic Ligand of the Tumoral Marker CXCR4. Pharmaceutics 2021; 13:1922. [PMID: 34834337 PMCID: PMC8621837 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics13111922] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2021] [Revised: 10/21/2021] [Accepted: 11/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
CXCR4 is a cytokine receptor used by HIV during cell attachment and infection. Overexpressed in the cancer stem cells of more than 20 human neoplasias, CXCR4 is a convenient antitumoral drug target. T22 is a polyphemusin-derived peptide and an effective CXCR4 ligand. Its highly selective CXCR4 binding can be exploited as an agent for the cell-targeted delivery and internalization of associated antitumor drugs. Sharing chemical and structural traits with antimicrobial peptides (AMPs), the capability of T22 as an antibacterial agent remains unexplored. Here, we have detected T22-associated antimicrobial activity and biofilm formation inhibition over Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa, in a spectrum broader than the reference AMP GWH1. In contrast to GWH1, T22 shows neither cytotoxicity over mammalian cells nor hemolytic activity and is active when displayed on protein-only nanoparticles through genetic fusion. Under the pushing need for novel antimicrobial agents, the discovery of T22 as an AMP is particularly appealing, not only as its mere addition to the expanding catalogue of antibacterial drugs. The recognized clinical uses of T22 might allow its combined and multivalent application in complex clinical conditions, such as colorectal cancer, that might benefit from the synchronous destruction of cancer stem cells and local bacterial biofilms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naroa Serna
- Institut de Biotecnologia i de Biomedicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Cerdanyola del Vallès, Spain; (N.S.); (J.V.C.); (O.C.-S.); (C.M.-T.); (N.F.-M.); (E.V.)
- Departament de Genètica i de Microbiologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Cerdanyola del Vallès, Spain;
- CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), 28029 Madrid, Spain;
| | - José Vicente Carratalá
- Institut de Biotecnologia i de Biomedicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Cerdanyola del Vallès, Spain; (N.S.); (J.V.C.); (O.C.-S.); (C.M.-T.); (N.F.-M.); (E.V.)
- Departament de Genètica i de Microbiologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Cerdanyola del Vallès, Spain;
- CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), 28029 Madrid, Spain;
| | - Oscar Conchillo-Solé
- Institut de Biotecnologia i de Biomedicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Cerdanyola del Vallès, Spain; (N.S.); (J.V.C.); (O.C.-S.); (C.M.-T.); (N.F.-M.); (E.V.)
- Departament de Genètica i de Microbiologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Cerdanyola del Vallès, Spain;
| | - Carlos Martínez-Torró
- Institut de Biotecnologia i de Biomedicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Cerdanyola del Vallès, Spain; (N.S.); (J.V.C.); (O.C.-S.); (C.M.-T.); (N.F.-M.); (E.V.)
| | - Ugutz Unzueta
- Departament de Genètica i de Microbiologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Cerdanyola del Vallès, Spain;
- CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), 28029 Madrid, Spain;
- Biomedical Research Institute Sant Pau (IIB-Sant Pau), Hospital de la Santa Creu i Sant Pau, 08025 Barcelona, Spain
- Josep Carreras Research Institute, 08916 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Ramón Mangues
- CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), 28029 Madrid, Spain;
- Biomedical Research Institute Sant Pau (IIB-Sant Pau), Hospital de la Santa Creu i Sant Pau, 08025 Barcelona, Spain
- Josep Carreras Research Institute, 08916 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Neus Ferrer-Miralles
- Institut de Biotecnologia i de Biomedicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Cerdanyola del Vallès, Spain; (N.S.); (J.V.C.); (O.C.-S.); (C.M.-T.); (N.F.-M.); (E.V.)
- Departament de Genètica i de Microbiologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Cerdanyola del Vallès, Spain;
- CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), 28029 Madrid, Spain;
| | - Xavier Daura
- Institut de Biotecnologia i de Biomedicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Cerdanyola del Vallès, Spain; (N.S.); (J.V.C.); (O.C.-S.); (C.M.-T.); (N.F.-M.); (E.V.)
- CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), 28029 Madrid, Spain;
- Catalan Institution for Research and Advanced Studies (ICREA), 08010 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Esther Vázquez
- Institut de Biotecnologia i de Biomedicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Cerdanyola del Vallès, Spain; (N.S.); (J.V.C.); (O.C.-S.); (C.M.-T.); (N.F.-M.); (E.V.)
- Departament de Genètica i de Microbiologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Cerdanyola del Vallès, Spain;
- CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), 28029 Madrid, Spain;
| | - Antonio Villaverde
- Institut de Biotecnologia i de Biomedicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Cerdanyola del Vallès, Spain; (N.S.); (J.V.C.); (O.C.-S.); (C.M.-T.); (N.F.-M.); (E.V.)
- Departament de Genètica i de Microbiologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Cerdanyola del Vallès, Spain;
- CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), 28029 Madrid, Spain;
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9
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Sánchez-García L, Voltà-Durán E, Parladé E, Mazzega E, Sánchez-Chardi A, Serna N, López-Laguna H, Mitstorfer M, Unzueta U, Vázquez E, Villaverde A, de Marco A. Self-Assembled Nanobodies as Selectively Targeted, Nanostructured, and Multivalent Materials. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2021; 13:29406-29415. [PMID: 34129336 PMCID: PMC9262252 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.1c08092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Nanobodies represent valuable tools in advanced therapeutic strategies but their small size (∼2.5 × ∼ 4 nm) and limited valence for interactions might pose restrictions for in vivo applications, especially regarding their modest capacity for multivalent and cooperative interaction. In this work, modular protein constructs have been designed, in which nanobodies are fused to protein domains to provide further functionalities and to favor oligomerization into stable self-assembled nanoparticles. The nanobody specificity for their targets is maintained in such supramolecular complexes. Also, their diameter around 70 nm and multivalent interactivity should favor binding and penetrability into target cells via solvent-exposed receptor. These concepts have been supported by unrelated nanobodies directed against the ricin toxin (A3C8) and the Her2 receptor (EM1), respectively, that were modified with the addition of a reporter protein and a hexa-histidine tag at the C-terminus that promotes self-assembling. The A3C8-based nanoparticles neutralize the ricin toxin efficiently, whereas the EM1-based nanoparticles enable to selective imaging Her2-positive cells. These findings support the excellent extracellular and intracellular functionality of nanobodies organized in form of oligomeric nanoscale assemblies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Sánchez-García
- Institut
de Biotecnologia i de Biomedicina, Universitat
Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Barcelona 08193, Spain
- Departament
de Genètica i de Microbiologia, Universitat
Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Barcelona 08193, Spain
- CIBER
de Bioingeniería Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), Bellaterra, Barcelona 08193, Spain
| | - Eric Voltà-Durán
- Institut
de Biotecnologia i de Biomedicina, Universitat
Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Barcelona 08193, Spain
- Departament
de Genètica i de Microbiologia, Universitat
Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Barcelona 08193, Spain
- CIBER
de Bioingeniería Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), Bellaterra, Barcelona 08193, Spain
| | - Eloi Parladé
- Institut
de Biotecnologia i de Biomedicina, Universitat
Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Barcelona 08193, Spain
- Departament
de Genètica i de Microbiologia, Universitat
Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Barcelona 08193, Spain
- CIBER
de Bioingeniería Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), Bellaterra, Barcelona 08193, Spain
| | - Elisa Mazzega
- Laboratory
for Environmental and Life Sciences, University
of Nova Gorica Nova Gorica 5000, Slovenia
| | - Alejandro Sánchez-Chardi
- Servei
de Microscòpia, Universitat Autònoma
de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Barcelona 08193, Spain
- Departament
de Biologia Evolutiva, Ecologia i Ciències Ambientals, Facultat
de Biologia, Universitat de Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Naroa Serna
- Institut
de Biotecnologia i de Biomedicina, Universitat
Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Barcelona 08193, Spain
- Departament
de Genètica i de Microbiologia, Universitat
Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Barcelona 08193, Spain
- CIBER
de Bioingeniería Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), Bellaterra, Barcelona 08193, Spain
| | - Hèctor López-Laguna
- Institut
de Biotecnologia i de Biomedicina, Universitat
Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Barcelona 08193, Spain
- Departament
de Genètica i de Microbiologia, Universitat
Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Barcelona 08193, Spain
- CIBER
de Bioingeniería Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), Bellaterra, Barcelona 08193, Spain
| | - Mara Mitstorfer
- University
of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Department of Chemistry, Institute of Biochemistry, 1190 Vienna, Austria
| | - Ugutz Unzueta
- Departament
de Genètica i de Microbiologia, Universitat
Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Barcelona 08193, Spain
- CIBER
de Bioingeniería Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), Bellaterra, Barcelona 08193, Spain
- Biomedical
Research Institute Sant Pau (IIB Sant Pau), Sant Antoni Ma̲ Claret 167, 08025 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Esther Vázquez
- Institut
de Biotecnologia i de Biomedicina, Universitat
Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Barcelona 08193, Spain
- Departament
de Genètica i de Microbiologia, Universitat
Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Barcelona 08193, Spain
- CIBER
de Bioingeniería Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), Bellaterra, Barcelona 08193, Spain
| | - Antonio Villaverde
- Institut
de Biotecnologia i de Biomedicina, Universitat
Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Barcelona 08193, Spain
- Departament
de Genètica i de Microbiologia, Universitat
Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Barcelona 08193, Spain
- CIBER
de Bioingeniería Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), Bellaterra, Barcelona 08193, Spain
| | - Ario de Marco
- Laboratory
for Environmental and Life Sciences, University
of Nova Gorica Nova Gorica 5000, Slovenia
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10
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Cano-Garrido O, Álamo P, Sánchez-García L, Falgàs A, Sánchez-Chardi A, Serna N, Parladé E, Unzueta U, Roldán M, Voltà-Durán E, Casanova I, Villaverde A, Mangues R, Vázquez E. Biparatopic Protein Nanoparticles for the Precision Therapy of CXCR4 + Cancers. Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:cancers13122929. [PMID: 34208189 PMCID: PMC8230831 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13122929] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2021] [Revised: 05/28/2021] [Accepted: 06/07/2021] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Aimed at minimizing side toxicities cancer therapies require appropriate functional vehicles at the nanoscale, for receptor-mediated tumor-targeted drug delivery. The aim of the present study was to explore the human peptide EPI-X4 as a CXCR4-targeting agent in self-assembled, protein-only nanoparticles. While the systemic tumor biodistribution of EPI-X4-based materials is modest, this peptide shows potent proapoptotic effects on CXCR4+ cancer cells. Interestingly, the in vivo selectivity of EPI-X4 was dramatically improved, once combined into biparatopic nanoparticles, with a second CXCR4 ligand, the peptide T22. Biparatopic nanoparticles promote a highly selective tumor destruction in a mouse model of human colorectal cancer, probably associated to the CXCR4 antagonist role of EPI-X4. This study not only validates a new human ligand of the tumoral marker CXCR4, but it also offers a novel strategy for the combination, in protein nanoparticles, of dual acting ligands of tumoral markers for highly selective drug delivery. Abstract The accumulated molecular knowledge about human cancer enables the identification of multiple cell surface markers as highly specific therapeutic targets. A proper tumor targeting could significantly avoid drug exposure of healthy cells, minimizing side effects, but it is also expected to increase the therapeutic index. Specifically, colorectal cancer has a particularly poor prognosis in late stages, being drug targeting an appropriate strategy to substantially improve the therapeutic efficacy. In this study, we have explored the potential of the human albumin-derived peptide, EPI-X4, as a suitable ligand to target colorectal cancer via the cell surface protein CXCR4, a chemokine receptor overexpressed in cancer stem cells. To explore the potential use of this ligand, self-assembling protein nanoparticles have been generated displaying an engineered EPI-X4 version, which conferred a modest CXCR4 targeting and fast and high level of cell apoptosis in tumor CXCR4+ cells, in vitro and in vivo. In addition, when EPI-X4-based building blocks are combined with biologically inert polypeptides containing the CXCR4 ligand T22, the resulting biparatopic nanoparticles show a dramatically improved biodistribution in mouse models of CXCR4+ human cancer, faster cell internalization and enhanced target cell death when compared to the version based on a single ligand. The generation of biparatopic materials opens exciting possibilities in oncotherapies based on high precision drug delivery based on the receptor CXCR4.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olivia Cano-Garrido
- Nanoligent SL, Edifici EUREKA, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain; (O.C.-G.); (N.S.)
- Institut de Biotecnologia i de Biomedicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain; (L.S.-G.); (E.P.); (E.V.-D.)
| | - Patricia Álamo
- CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), C/Monforte de Lemos 3-5, 28029 Madrid, Spain; (P.Á.); (A.F.); (U.U.); (I.C.)
- Instituto de Investigación Biomédica Sant Pau (IIB Sant Pau), Sant Antoni Ma Claret 167, 08025 Barcelona, Spain
- Instituto de Investigación Contra la Leucemia Josep Carreras, 08025 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Laura Sánchez-García
- Institut de Biotecnologia i de Biomedicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain; (L.S.-G.); (E.P.); (E.V.-D.)
- CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), C/Monforte de Lemos 3-5, 28029 Madrid, Spain; (P.Á.); (A.F.); (U.U.); (I.C.)
- Departament de Genètica i de Microbiologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Aïda Falgàs
- CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), C/Monforte de Lemos 3-5, 28029 Madrid, Spain; (P.Á.); (A.F.); (U.U.); (I.C.)
- Instituto de Investigación Biomédica Sant Pau (IIB Sant Pau), Sant Antoni Ma Claret 167, 08025 Barcelona, Spain
- Instituto de Investigación Contra la Leucemia Josep Carreras, 08025 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Alejandro Sánchez-Chardi
- Departament de Biologia Evolutiva, Ecologia i Ciències Ambientals, Facultat de Biologia, Universitat de Barcelona, Av. Diagonal 643, 08028 Barcelona, Spain;
- Servei de Microscòpia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Naroa Serna
- Nanoligent SL, Edifici EUREKA, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain; (O.C.-G.); (N.S.)
- Institut de Biotecnologia i de Biomedicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain; (L.S.-G.); (E.P.); (E.V.-D.)
- CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), C/Monforte de Lemos 3-5, 28029 Madrid, Spain; (P.Á.); (A.F.); (U.U.); (I.C.)
| | - Eloi Parladé
- Institut de Biotecnologia i de Biomedicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain; (L.S.-G.); (E.P.); (E.V.-D.)
- CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), C/Monforte de Lemos 3-5, 28029 Madrid, Spain; (P.Á.); (A.F.); (U.U.); (I.C.)
| | - Ugutz Unzueta
- CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), C/Monforte de Lemos 3-5, 28029 Madrid, Spain; (P.Á.); (A.F.); (U.U.); (I.C.)
- Instituto de Investigación Biomédica Sant Pau (IIB Sant Pau), Sant Antoni Ma Claret 167, 08025 Barcelona, Spain
- Instituto de Investigación Contra la Leucemia Josep Carreras, 08025 Barcelona, Spain
- Departament de Genètica i de Microbiologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Mònica Roldán
- Unitat de Microscòpia Confocal i Imatge Cel·lular, Servei de Medicina Genètica i Molecular, Institut Pediàtric de Malalties Rares (IPER), Hospital Sant Joan de Déu, Esplugues de Llobregat, 08950 Barcelona, Spain;
- Institut de Recerca Sant Joan de Déu, Esplugues de Llobregat, 08950 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Eric Voltà-Durán
- Institut de Biotecnologia i de Biomedicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain; (L.S.-G.); (E.P.); (E.V.-D.)
- CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), C/Monforte de Lemos 3-5, 28029 Madrid, Spain; (P.Á.); (A.F.); (U.U.); (I.C.)
- Departament de Genètica i de Microbiologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Isolda Casanova
- CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), C/Monforte de Lemos 3-5, 28029 Madrid, Spain; (P.Á.); (A.F.); (U.U.); (I.C.)
- Instituto de Investigación Biomédica Sant Pau (IIB Sant Pau), Sant Antoni Ma Claret 167, 08025 Barcelona, Spain
- Instituto de Investigación Contra la Leucemia Josep Carreras, 08025 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Antonio Villaverde
- Institut de Biotecnologia i de Biomedicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain; (L.S.-G.); (E.P.); (E.V.-D.)
- CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), C/Monforte de Lemos 3-5, 28029 Madrid, Spain; (P.Á.); (A.F.); (U.U.); (I.C.)
- Departament de Genètica i de Microbiologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain
- Correspondence: (A.V.); (R.M.); (E.V.)
| | - Ramón Mangues
- CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), C/Monforte de Lemos 3-5, 28029 Madrid, Spain; (P.Á.); (A.F.); (U.U.); (I.C.)
- Instituto de Investigación Biomédica Sant Pau (IIB Sant Pau), Sant Antoni Ma Claret 167, 08025 Barcelona, Spain
- Instituto de Investigación Contra la Leucemia Josep Carreras, 08025 Barcelona, Spain
- Correspondence: (A.V.); (R.M.); (E.V.)
| | - Esther Vázquez
- Institut de Biotecnologia i de Biomedicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain; (L.S.-G.); (E.P.); (E.V.-D.)
- CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), C/Monforte de Lemos 3-5, 28029 Madrid, Spain; (P.Á.); (A.F.); (U.U.); (I.C.)
- Departament de Genètica i de Microbiologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain
- Correspondence: (A.V.); (R.M.); (E.V.)
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11
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Voltà-Durán E, Serna N, Sánchez-García L, Aviñó A, Sánchez JM, López-Laguna H, Cano-Garrido O, Casanova I, Mangues R, Eritja R, Vázquez E, Villaverde A, Unzueta U. Design and engineering of tumor-targeted, dual-acting cytotoxic nanoparticles. Acta Biomater 2021; 119:312-322. [PMID: 33189955 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2020.11.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2020] [Revised: 11/09/2020] [Accepted: 11/10/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The possibility to conjugate tumor-targeted cytotoxic nanoparticles and conventional antitumoral drugs in single pharmacological entities would open a wide spectrum of opportunities in nanomedical oncology. This principle has been explored here by using CXCR4-targeted self-assembling protein nanoparticles based on two potent microbial toxins, the exotoxin A from Pseudomonas aeruginosa and the diphtheria toxin from Corynebacterium diphtheriae, to which oligo-floxuridine and monomethyl auristatin E respectively have been chemically coupled. The resulting multifunctional hybrid nanoconjugates, with a hydrodynamic size of around 50 nm, are stable and internalize target cells with a biological impact. Although the chemical conjugation minimizes the cytotoxic activity of the protein partner in the complexes, the concept of drug combination proposed here is fully feasible and highly promising when considering multiple drug treatments aimed to higher effectiveness or when facing the therapy of cancers with acquired resistance to classical drugs.
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12
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Serna N, Carratalá JV, Parladé E, Sánchez-Chardi A, Aviñó A, Unzueta U, Mangues R, Eritja R, Ferrer-Miralles N, Vazquez E, Villaverde A. Developing Protein-Antitumoral Drug Nanoconjugates as Bifunctional Antimicrobial Agents. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2020; 12:57746-57756. [PMID: 33325705 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.0c18317] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
A novel concept about bifunctional antimicrobial drugs, based on self-assembling protein nanoparticles, has been evaluated here over two biofilm-forming pathogens, namely Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus. Two structurally different antimicrobial peptides (GWH1 and PaDBS1R1) were engineered to form regular nanoparticles of around 35 nm, to which the small molecular weight drug Floxuridine was covalently conjugated. Both the assembled peptides and the chemical, a conventional cytotoxic drug used in oncotherapy, showed potent antimicrobial activities that were enhanced by the combination of both molecules in single pharmacological entities. Therefore, the resulting prototypes show promises as innovative nanomedicines, being potential alternatives to conventional antibiotics. The biological performance and easy fabrication of these materials fully support the design of protein-based hybrid constructs for combined molecular therapies, expected to have broad applicability beyond antimicrobial medicines. In addition, the approach taken here validates the functional exploration and repurposing of antitumoral drugs, which at low concentrations perform well as unexpected biofilm-inhibiting agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naroa Serna
- Institut de Biotecnologia i de Biomedicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain
- Departament de Genètica i de Microbiologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain
- CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), C/Monforte de Lemos 3-5, 28029 Madrid, Spain
| | - Jose Vicente Carratalá
- Institut de Biotecnologia i de Biomedicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain
- Departament de Genètica i de Microbiologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain
- CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), C/Monforte de Lemos 3-5, 28029 Madrid, Spain
| | - Eloi Parladé
- Institut de Biotecnologia i de Biomedicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain
- CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), C/Monforte de Lemos 3-5, 28029 Madrid, Spain
| | - Alejandro Sánchez-Chardi
- Servei de Microscòpia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain
- Departament de Biologia Evolutiva, Ecologia i Ciències Ambientals, Facultat de Biologia, Universitat de Barcelona, Av. Diagonal 643, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Anna Aviñó
- CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), C/Monforte de Lemos 3-5, 28029 Madrid, Spain
- Institute for Advanced Chemistry of Catalonia (IQAC), CSIC, 08034 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Ugutz Unzueta
- Departament de Genètica i de Microbiologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain
- CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), C/Monforte de Lemos 3-5, 28029 Madrid, Spain
- Biomedical Research Institute Sant Pau (IIB Sant Pau), Sant Antoni Maria Claret 167, 08025 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Ramón Mangues
- CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), C/Monforte de Lemos 3-5, 28029 Madrid, Spain
- Biomedical Research Institute Sant Pau (IIB Sant Pau), Sant Antoni Maria Claret 167, 08025 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Ramón Eritja
- CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), C/Monforte de Lemos 3-5, 28029 Madrid, Spain
- Institute for Advanced Chemistry of Catalonia (IQAC), CSIC, 08034 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Neus Ferrer-Miralles
- Institut de Biotecnologia i de Biomedicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain
- Departament de Genètica i de Microbiologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain
- CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), C/Monforte de Lemos 3-5, 28029 Madrid, Spain
| | - Esther Vazquez
- Institut de Biotecnologia i de Biomedicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain
- Departament de Genètica i de Microbiologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain
- CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), C/Monforte de Lemos 3-5, 28029 Madrid, Spain
| | - Antonio Villaverde
- Institut de Biotecnologia i de Biomedicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain
- Departament de Genètica i de Microbiologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain
- CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), C/Monforte de Lemos 3-5, 28029 Madrid, Spain
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13
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Dalili D, Isaac A, Cazzato RL, Åström G, Bergh J, Mansour R, Weber MA, Garnon J, Gangi A. Interventional Techniques for Bone and Musculoskeletal Soft Tissue Tumors: Current Practices and Future Directions - Part II. Stabilization. Semin Musculoskelet Radiol 2020; 24:710-725. [PMID: 33307586 DOI: 10.1055/s-0040-1719104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Percutaneous image-guided oncologic interventions have rapidly evolved over the last two decades as an independent strategy or used within a first-, second-, or even third-line strategy in the treatment of musculoskeletal (MSK) tumors. Abundant mostly nonrandomized publications have described the safety, efficacy, and reproducibility of implementing percutaneous therapies both with curative and palliative intent. In this article, we continue to share our experience in bone and MSK soft tissue interventions focusing on stabilization and combined ablation and stabilization. We propose a pathway and explore future directions of image-guided interventional oncology related to skeletal disease. We reflect on the advantages and limitations of each technique and offer guidance and pearls to improve outcomes. Representing patterns from our practices, we demonstrate the role of collaborative working within a multidisciplinary team, ideally within a dedicated tumor treatment center, to deliver patient-specific therapy plans that are value based and favored by patients when given the choice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danoob Dalili
- Department of Radiology, Nuffield Orthopaedic Centre, Oxford University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Oxford, United Kingdom.,School of Biomedical Engineering and Imaging Sciences, Kings College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Amanda Isaac
- School of Biomedical Engineering and Imaging Sciences, Kings College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Roberto Luigi Cazzato
- Imagerie Interventionnelle, Hôpitaux Universitaires de Strasbourg, Strasbourg Cedex, France
| | - Gunnar Åström
- Department of Immunology, Genetics and Pathology (Oncology) and Department of Surgical Sciences (Radiology), Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Jonas Bergh
- Department of Oncology, Karolinska Institutet, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Ramy Mansour
- Department of Radiology, Nuffield Orthopaedic Centre, Oxford University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Marc-André Weber
- Institute of Diagnostic and Interventional Radiology, Paediatric Radiology and Neuroradiology, University Medical Centre Rostock, Rostock, Germany
| | - Julien Garnon
- Imagerie Interventionnelle, Hôpitaux Universitaires de Strasbourg, Strasbourg Cedex, France
| | - Afshin Gangi
- School of Biomedical Engineering and Imaging Sciences, Kings College London, London, United Kingdom.,Imagerie Interventionnelle, Hôpitaux Universitaires de Strasbourg, Strasbourg Cedex, France
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14
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López-Laguna H, Sánchez J, Unzueta U, Mangues R, Vázquez E, Villaverde A. Divalent Cations: A Molecular Glue for Protein Materials. Trends Biochem Sci 2020; 45:992-1003. [PMID: 32891514 DOI: 10.1016/j.tibs.2020.08.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2020] [Revised: 07/30/2020] [Accepted: 08/06/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Among inorganic materials, divalent cations modulate thousands of physiological processes that support life. Their roles in protein assembly and aggregation are less known, although they are progressively being brought to light. We review the structural roles of divalent cations here, as well as the novel protein materials that are under development, in which they are used as glue-like agents. More specifically, we discuss how mechanically stable nanoparticles, fibers, matrices, and hydrogels are generated through their coordination with histidine-rich proteins. We also describe how the rational use of divalent cations combined with simple protein engineering offers unexpected and very simple biochemical approaches to biomaterial design that might address unmet clinical needs in precision medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hèctor López-Laguna
- Institut de Biotecnologia i de Biomedicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, 08193, Barcelona, Spain; Departament de Genètica i de Microbiologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, 08193, Barcelona, Spain; CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), Madrid, Spain
| | - Julieta Sánchez
- Institut de Biotecnologia i de Biomedicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, 08193, Barcelona, Spain; Departament de Genètica i de Microbiologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, 08193, Barcelona, Spain; Instituto de Investigaciones Biológicas y Tecnológicas (IIBYT) (CONICET-Universidad Nacional de Córdoba), ICTA & Cátedra de Química Biológica, Departamento de Química, FCEFyN, X 5016GCA, Córdoba, Argentina
| | - Ugutz Unzueta
- Departament de Genètica i de Microbiologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, 08193, Barcelona, Spain; CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), Madrid, Spain; Biomedical Research Institute Sant Pau (IIB-Sant Pau), Hospital de la Santa Creu i Sant Pau, 08041 Barcelona, Spain; Josep Carreras Research Institute, 08041 Barcelona, Spain.
| | - Ramón Mangues
- CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), Madrid, Spain; Biomedical Research Institute Sant Pau (IIB-Sant Pau), Hospital de la Santa Creu i Sant Pau, 08041 Barcelona, Spain; Josep Carreras Research Institute, 08041 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Esther Vázquez
- Institut de Biotecnologia i de Biomedicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, 08193, Barcelona, Spain; Departament de Genètica i de Microbiologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, 08193, Barcelona, Spain; CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), Madrid, Spain
| | - Antonio Villaverde
- Institut de Biotecnologia i de Biomedicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, 08193, Barcelona, Spain; Departament de Genètica i de Microbiologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, 08193, Barcelona, Spain; CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), Madrid, Spain.
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