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Shen K, Duan Q, Duan W, Xu S, An N, Ke Y, Wang L, Liu S, Yang H, Zhang C. Vascular endothelial growth factor-C modulates cortical NMDA receptor activity in cortical lesions of young patients and rat model with focal cortical dysplasia. Brain Pathol 2022; 32:e13065. [PMID: 35259773 PMCID: PMC9425019 DOI: 10.1111/bpa.13065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2022] [Revised: 02/20/2022] [Accepted: 02/25/2022] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Emergence of dysmorphic neurons is the primary pathology in focal cortical dysplasia (FCD) associated pediatric intractable epilepsy; however, the etiologies related to the development and function of dysmorphic neurons are not fully understood. Our previous studies revealed that the expression of vascular endothelial growth factor-C (VEGF-C) and corresponding receptors VEGFR-2, VEGFR-3 was increased in the epileptic lesions of patients with tuberous sclerosis complex or mesial temporal lobe epilepsy. Here, we showed that the expression of VEGF-C, VEGFR-2, and VEGFR-3 was increased at both mRNA and protein levels in patients with cortical lesions of type I, IIa, and IIb FCD. The immunoreactivity of VEGF-C, VEGFR-2 and VEGFR-3 was located in the micro-columnar neurons in FCD type I lesions, dysplastic neurons (DNs) in FCD type IIa lesions, balloon cells (BCs) and astrocytes in FCD type IIb lesions. Additionally, the amplitude of evoked-EPSCs (eEPSC) mediated by NMDA receptor, the ratio of NMDA receptor- and AMPA receptor-mediated eEPSC were increased in the dysmorphic neurons of FCD rats established by prenatal X-ray radiation. Furthermore, NMDA receptor mediated current in dysmorphic neurons was further potentiated by exogenous administration of VEGF-C, however, could be antagonized by ki8751, the blocker of VEGFR-2. These results suggest that VEGF-C system participate in the pathogenesis of cortical lesions in patients with FCD in association with modulating NMDA receptor-mediated currents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kai‐Feng Shen
- Department of NeurosurgeryEpilepsy Research Center of PLAXinqiao HospitalArmy Medical UniversityChongqingChina
| | - Qing‐Tian Duan
- Department of NeurosurgeryEpilepsy Research Center of PLAXinqiao HospitalArmy Medical UniversityChongqingChina
| | - Wei Duan
- Department of NeurologyXinqiao HospitalArmy Medical UniversityChongqingChina
| | - Sen‐Lin Xu
- Institute of PathologySouthwest HospitalArmy Medical UniversityChongqingChina
| | - Ning An
- Department of NeurosurgeryEpilepsy Research Center of PLAXinqiao HospitalArmy Medical UniversityChongqingChina
| | - Yan‐Yan Ke
- Department of NeurosurgeryEpilepsy Research Center of PLAXinqiao HospitalArmy Medical UniversityChongqingChina
| | - Li‐Ting Wang
- Biomedical Analysis CenterArmy Medical UniversityChongqingChina
| | - Shi‐Yong Liu
- Department of NeurosurgeryEpilepsy Research Center of PLAXinqiao HospitalArmy Medical UniversityChongqingChina
| | - Hui Yang
- Department of NeurosurgeryEpilepsy Research Center of PLAXinqiao HospitalArmy Medical UniversityChongqingChina
- Guangyang Bay LaboratoryChongqing Institute for Brain and IntelligenceChongqingChina
| | - Chun‐Qing Zhang
- Department of NeurosurgeryEpilepsy Research Center of PLAXinqiao HospitalArmy Medical UniversityChongqingChina
- Guangyang Bay LaboratoryChongqing Institute for Brain and IntelligenceChongqingChina
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Effect of Pericytes on Cerebral Microvasculature at Different Time Points of Stroke. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2022; 2021:5281182. [PMID: 34977241 PMCID: PMC8716223 DOI: 10.1155/2021/5281182] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2021] [Accepted: 11/30/2021] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Pericyte, as an important component of the blood-brain barrier, has received increasing attention in the study of cerebrovascular diseases. However, the mechanism of pericytes after the occurrence of cerebral ischemia is controversial. On the one hand, the expression of pericytes increases after cerebral ischemia, constricting the blood vessels to restrict blood supply and aggravating the damage caused by ischemia; on the other hand, pericytes participate in capillary angiogenesis in the ischemic area, which facilitates the repair of the ischemic injury area. The multifunctionality of pericytes is an important reason for this phenomenon, but the different time points of observation for the outcome indicators in each study are also an important factor that leads to the controversy of pericytes. Based on the review of a large database of original studies, the authors' team summarized the effects of pericytes on cerebral microvasculature at different time points after stroke, searched the possible markers, and explored possible therapeutic.
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Mitroshina EV, Loginova MM, Savyuk MO, Krivonosov MI, Mishchenko TA, Tarabykin VS, Ivanchenko MV, Vedunova MV. Neuroprotective Effect of Kinase Inhibition in Ischemic Factor Modeling In Vitro. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:1885. [PMID: 33672819 PMCID: PMC7917718 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22041885] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2021] [Revised: 02/09/2021] [Accepted: 02/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The contribution of many neuronal kinases to the adaptation of nerve cells to ischemic damage and their effect on functional neural network activity has not yet been studied. The aim of this work is to study the role of the four kinases belonging to different metabolic cascades (SRC, Ikkb, eEF2K, and FLT4) in the adaptive potential of the neuron-glial network for modeling the key factors of ischemic damage. We carried out a comprehensive study on the effects of kinases blockade on the viability and network functional calcium activity of nerve cells under ischemic factor modeling in vitro. Ischemic factor modelling was performed on day 14 of culturing primary hippocampal cells obtained from mouse embryos (E18). The most significant neuroprotective effect was shown in the blockade of FLT4 kinase in the simulation of hypoxia. The studies performed revealed the role of FLT4 in the development of functional dysfunction in cerebrovascular accidents and created new opportunities for the study of this enzyme and its blockers in the formation of new therapeutic strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena V. Mitroshina
- Institute of Biology and Biomedicine, Lobachevsky State University of Nizhni Novgorod, 23 Prospekt Gagarina, 603950 Nizhny Novgorod, Russia; (M.M.L.); (M.O.S.); (T.A.M.); (V.S.T.)
| | - Maria M. Loginova
- Institute of Biology and Biomedicine, Lobachevsky State University of Nizhni Novgorod, 23 Prospekt Gagarina, 603950 Nizhny Novgorod, Russia; (M.M.L.); (M.O.S.); (T.A.M.); (V.S.T.)
| | - Maria O. Savyuk
- Institute of Biology and Biomedicine, Lobachevsky State University of Nizhni Novgorod, 23 Prospekt Gagarina, 603950 Nizhny Novgorod, Russia; (M.M.L.); (M.O.S.); (T.A.M.); (V.S.T.)
| | - Mikhail I. Krivonosov
- Institute of Information, Technology, Mathematics and Mechanics, Lobachevsky State University of Nizhni Novgorod, 23 Prospekt Gagarina, 603950 Nizhny Novgorod, Russia; (M.I.K.); (M.V.I.)
| | - Tatiana A. Mishchenko
- Institute of Biology and Biomedicine, Lobachevsky State University of Nizhni Novgorod, 23 Prospekt Gagarina, 603950 Nizhny Novgorod, Russia; (M.M.L.); (M.O.S.); (T.A.M.); (V.S.T.)
| | - Viktor S. Tarabykin
- Institute of Biology and Biomedicine, Lobachevsky State University of Nizhni Novgorod, 23 Prospekt Gagarina, 603950 Nizhny Novgorod, Russia; (M.M.L.); (M.O.S.); (T.A.M.); (V.S.T.)
- Institute of Cell Biology and Neurobiology, Charité—Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Charitéplatz 1, 10117 Berlin, Germany
| | - Mikhail V. Ivanchenko
- Institute of Information, Technology, Mathematics and Mechanics, Lobachevsky State University of Nizhni Novgorod, 23 Prospekt Gagarina, 603950 Nizhny Novgorod, Russia; (M.I.K.); (M.V.I.)
| | - Maria V. Vedunova
- Institute of Biology and Biomedicine, Lobachevsky State University of Nizhni Novgorod, 23 Prospekt Gagarina, 603950 Nizhny Novgorod, Russia; (M.M.L.); (M.O.S.); (T.A.M.); (V.S.T.)
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Yanev P, Poinsatte K, Hominick D, Khurana N, Zuurbier KR, Berndt M, Plautz EJ, Dellinger MT, Stowe AM. Impaired meningeal lymphatic vessel development worsens stroke outcome. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 2020; 40:263-275. [PMID: 30621519 PMCID: PMC7370617 DOI: 10.1177/0271678x18822921] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The discovery of meningeal lymphatic vessels (LVs) has sparked interest in identifying their role in diseases of the central nervous system. Similar to peripheral LVs, meningeal LVs depend on vascular endothelial growth factor receptor-3 (VEGFR3) signaling for development. Here we characterize the effect of stroke on meningeal LVs, and the impact of meningeal lymphatic hypoplasia on post-stroke outcomes. We show that photothrombosis (PT), but not transient middle cerebral artery occlusion (tMCAo), induces meningeal lymphangiogenesis in young male C57Bl/J6 mice. We also show that Vegfr3wt/mut mice develop significantly fewer meningeal LVs than Vegfr3wt/wt mice. Again, meningeal lymphangiogenesis occurs in the alymphatic zone lateral to the sagittal sinus only after PT-induced stroke in Vegfr3wt/wt mice. Interestingly, Vegfr3wt/mut mice develop larger stroke volumes than Vegfr3wt/wt mice after tMCAo, but not after PT. Our results reveal differences between PT and tMCAo models of stroke and underscore the need to consider method of stroke induction when investigating the role of meningeal lymphatics. Taken together, our data indicate that ischemic injury can induce the growth of meningeal LVs and that the absence of these LVs can impact post-stroke outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pavel Yanev
- Department of Neurology and Neurotherapeutics, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Katherine Poinsatte
- Department of Neurology and Neurotherapeutics, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Devon Hominick
- Hamon Center for Therapeutic Oncology Research, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Noor Khurana
- Hamon Center for Therapeutic Oncology Research, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Kielen R Zuurbier
- Department of Neurology and Neurotherapeutics, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Marcus Berndt
- Department of Neurology and Neurotherapeutics, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Erik J Plautz
- Department of Neurology and Neurotherapeutics, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Michael T Dellinger
- Hamon Center for Therapeutic Oncology Research, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA.,Division of Surgical Oncology, Department of Surgery, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Ann M Stowe
- Department of Neurology and Neurotherapeutics, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA.,Department of Neurology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA
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Cho KO, Kim JY, Jeong KH, Lee MY, Kim SY. Increased expression of vascular endothelial growth factor-C and vascular endothelial growth factor receptor-3 after pilocarpine-induced status epilepticus in mice. THE KOREAN JOURNAL OF PHYSIOLOGY & PHARMACOLOGY : OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF THE KOREAN PHYSIOLOGICAL SOCIETY AND THE KOREAN SOCIETY OF PHARMACOLOGY 2019; 23:281-289. [PMID: 31297012 PMCID: PMC6609264 DOI: 10.4196/kjpp.2019.23.4.281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2019] [Revised: 05/07/2019] [Accepted: 05/08/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)-C and its receptor, vascular endothelial growth factor receptor (VEGFR)-3, are responsible for lymphangiogenesis in both embryos and adults. In epilepsy, the expression of VEGF-C and VEGFR-3 was significantly upregulated in the human brains affected with temporal lobe epilepsy. Moreover, pharmacologic inhibition of VEGF receptors after acute seizures could suppress the generation of spontaneous recurrent seizures, suggesting a critical role of VEGF-related signaling in epilepsy. Therefore, in the present study, the spatiotemporal expression of VEGF-C and VEGFR-3 against pilocarpine-induced status epilepticus (SE) was investigated in C57BL/6N mice using immunohistochemistry. At 1 day after SE, hippocampal astrocytes and microglia were activated. Pyramidal neuronal death was observed at 4 days after SE. In the subpyramidal zone, VEGF-C expression gradually increased and peaked at 7 days after SE, while VEGFR-3 was significantly upregulated at 4 days after SE and began to decrease at 7 days after SE. Most VEGF-C/VEGFR-3-expressing cells were pyramidal neurons, but VEGF-C was also observed in some astrocytes in sham-manipulated animals. However, at 4 days and 7 days after SE, both VEGFR-3 and VEGF-C immunoreactivities were observed mainly in astrocytes and in some microglia of the stratum radiatum and lacunosum-moleculare of the hippocampus, respectively. These data indicate that VEGF-C and VEGFR-3 can be upregulated in hippocampal astrocytes and microglia after pilocarpine-induced SE, providing basic information about VEGF-C and VEGFR-3 expression patterns following acute seizures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyung-Ok Cho
- Department of Pharmacology, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul 06591, Korea.,Department of Biomedicine & Health Sciences, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul 06591, Korea.,Catholic Neuroscience Institute, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul 06591, Korea.,Institute of Aging and Metabolic Diseases, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul 06591, Korea
| | - Joo Youn Kim
- Department of Pharmacology, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul 06591, Korea
| | - Kyoung Hoon Jeong
- Department of Pharmacology, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul 06591, Korea
| | - Mun-Yong Lee
- Department of Biomedicine & Health Sciences, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul 06591, Korea.,Catholic Neuroscience Institute, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul 06591, Korea.,Department of Anatomy, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul 06591, Korea
| | - Seong Yun Kim
- Department of Pharmacology, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul 06591, Korea.,Department of Biomedicine & Health Sciences, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul 06591, Korea.,Catholic Neuroscience Institute, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul 06591, Korea
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Park JM, Seong HH, Jin HB, Kim YJ. The Effect of Long-Term Environmental Enrichment in Chronic Cerebral Hypoperfusion-Induced Memory Impairment in Rats. Biol Res Nurs 2016; 19:278-286. [PMID: 28032515 DOI: 10.1177/1099800416686179] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Vascular dementia (VaD) is the second most common cause of dementia. It occurs when the cerebral blood supply is reduced by disarrangement of the circulatory system. Environmental enrichment (EE) has been associated with cognitive improvement, motor function recovery, and anxiety relief with respect to various neurodegenerative diseases and emotional stress models. The purpose of this study was to determine whether long-term EE influenced cognitive impairment in a rat model of chronic hypoperfusion induced by permanent occlusion of bilateral common carotid arteries (BCCAo). The Y-maze and Morris water maze tests were performed to evaluate the rats' cognitive functions. Also, the protein expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), phosphorylated cAMP-calcium response element binding protein (pCREB), and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) were confirmed by Western blot. The microvessels and angiogenesis-associated proteins in the hippocampal region were investigated using immunohistochemistry. The VaD + EE group showed significantly better cognitive functions than the VaD group in both the Y-maze and MWM tests. In addition, the VaD + EE group showed significantly increased expression of BDNF, pCREB, and VEGF in the hippocampus compared to the VaD group. Rats in the VaD + EE group also had increased length of microvessels and VEGF expression in the hippocampus. These results suggest that long-term EE exerts neuroprotective effects against cognitive impairment induced by chronic cerebral hypoperfusion through the enhancement of BDNF, pCREB, and VEGF expression and indicate that EE may be a good nursing intervention in vascular dementia patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jong-Min Park
- 1 Department of Nursing, Graduate School, Kyung Hee University, Dongdaemun-gu, Seoul, Korea
| | | | | | - Youn-Jung Kim
- 4 East West Nursing Institute, College of Nursing Science, Kyung Hee University, Dongdaemun-gu, Seoul, Korea
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Jiang MQ, Zhao YY, Cao W, Wei ZZ, Gu X, Wei L, Yu SP. Long-term survival and regeneration of neuronal and vasculature cells inside the core region after ischemic stroke in adult mice. Brain Pathol 2016; 27:480-498. [PMID: 27514013 DOI: 10.1111/bpa.12425] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2015] [Accepted: 07/27/2016] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Focal cerebral ischemia results in an ischemic core surrounded by the peri-infarct region (penumbra). Most research attention has been focused on penumbra while the pattern of cell fates inside the ischemic core is poorly defined. In the present investigation, we tested the hypothesis that, inside the ischemic core, some neuronal and vascular cells could survive the initial ischemic insult while regenerative niches might exist many days after stroke in the adult brain. Adult mice were subjected to focal cerebral ischemia induced by permanent occlusion of distal branches of the middle cerebral artery (MCA) plus transient ligations of bilateral common carotid artery (CCA). The ischemic insult uniformly reduced the local cerebral blood flow (LCBF) by 90%. Massive cell death occurred due to multiple mechanisms and a significant infarction was cultivated in the ischemic cortex 24 h later. Nevertheless, normal or even higher levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) persistently remained in the core tissue, some NeuN-positive and Glut-1/College IV-positive cells with intact ultrastructural features resided in the core 7-14 days post stroke. BrdU-positive but TUNEL-negative neuronal and endothelial cells were detected in the core where extensive extracellular matrix infrastructure developed. Meanwhile, GFAP-positive astrocytes accumulated in the penumbra and Iba-1-positive microglial/macrophages invaded the core several days after stroke. The long term survival of neuronal and vascular cells inside the ischemic core was also seen after a severe ischemic stroke induced by permanent embolic occlusion of the MCA. We demonstrate that a therapeutic intervention of pharmacological hypothermia could save neurons/endothelial cells inside the core. These data suggest that the ischemic core is an actively regulated brain region with residual and newly formed viable neuronal and vascular cells acutely and chronically after at least some types of ischemic strokes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Qize Jiang
- Department of Anesthesiology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA
| | - Ying-Ying Zhao
- Department of Anesthesiology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA.,Department of Neurology, Friendship Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Wenyuan Cao
- Department of Anesthesiology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA
| | - Zheng Zachory Wei
- Department of Anesthesiology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA.,Center for Visual and Neurocognitive Rehabilitation, Atlanta Veterans Affair Medical Center, Decatur, GA
| | - Xiaohuan Gu
- Department of Anesthesiology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA.,Center for Visual and Neurocognitive Rehabilitation, Atlanta Veterans Affair Medical Center, Decatur, GA
| | - Ling Wei
- Department of Anesthesiology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA.,Department of Neurology, Friendship Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Shan Ping Yu
- Department of Anesthesiology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA.,Center for Visual and Neurocognitive Rehabilitation, Atlanta Veterans Affair Medical Center, Decatur, GA
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Shin YJ, Riew TR, Park JH, Pak HJ, Lee MY. Expression of vascular endothelial growth factor-C (VEGF-C) and its receptor (VEGFR-3) in the glial reaction elicited by human mesenchymal stem cell engraftment in the normal rat brain. J Histochem Cytochem 2014; 63:170-80. [PMID: 25473093 DOI: 10.1369/0022155414564218] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
To determine whether vascular endothelial growth factor-C (VEGF-C) and its receptor (VEGFR-3) are involved in the glial reaction elicited by transplanted mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), we examined the cellular localization of VEGF-C and VEGFR-3 proteins in the striatum of adult normal rats that received bone marrow-derived human MSCs. The MSC grafts were infiltrated with activated microglia/macrophages and astrocytes over a 2-week period post-transplantation, which appeared to parallel the loss of transplanted MSCs. VEGF-C/VEGFR-3 was expressed in activated microglia/macrophages recruited to the graft site, where the induction of VEGF-C protein was rather late compared with that of its receptor. VEGF-C protein was absent or very weak on day 3, whereas VEGFR-3 immunoreactivity was evident within the first three days. Furthermore, within three days, VEGF-C could be detected in the brain macrophages localized immediately adjacent to the needle track. At the same time, almost all the brain macrophages in both regions expressed VEGFR-3. Reactive astrocytes at the graft site expressed VEGFR-3, but not VEGF-C. These data demonstrated the characteristic time- and cell-dependent expression patterns for VEGF-C and VEGFR-3 within the engrafted brain tissue, suggesting that they may contribute to neuroinflammation in MSC transplantation, possibly through the recruitment and/or activation of microglia/macrophages and astrogliosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoo-Jin Shin
- Department of Anatomy, Catholic Neuroscience Institute, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul, Korea (YJS, TRR, JHP, HJP, MYL)
| | - Tae-Ryong Riew
- Department of Anatomy, Catholic Neuroscience Institute, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul, Korea (YJS, TRR, JHP, HJP, MYL)
| | - Joo-Hee Park
- Department of Anatomy, Catholic Neuroscience Institute, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul, Korea (YJS, TRR, JHP, HJP, MYL)
| | - Ha-Jin Pak
- Department of Anatomy, Catholic Neuroscience Institute, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul, Korea (YJS, TRR, JHP, HJP, MYL)
| | - Mun-Yong Lee
- Department of Anatomy, Catholic Neuroscience Institute, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul, Korea (YJS, TRR, JHP, HJP, MYL)
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