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Goycochea-Valdivia WA, Aboza-García M, Moreno-Pérez de Tudela R, Carazo-Gallego B, Roldan-Tormo E, Ruiz-Sáez B, Vázquez-Pérez Á, Peromingo-Matute E, Croche-Santander B, Obando-Pacheco P, Obando-Santaella I. Infective endocarditis in paediatric patients from Andalusia (Spain), 2008-2020. ENFERMEDADES INFECCIOSAS Y MICROBIOLOGIA CLINICA (ENGLISH ED.) 2023; 41:549-558. [PMID: 36464618 DOI: 10.1016/j.eimce.2022.11.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2022] [Revised: 05/11/2022] [Accepted: 05/16/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Paediatric infective endocarditis (IE) is a serious condition associated with significant mortality. Information in Spain is limited and comes from case series from single centres. The aim was to describe the epidemiology, clinical features, microbiology and outcome of paediatric IE in Andalusia. PATIENTS AND METHODS Multi-centre descriptive observational retrospective study of patients <18 years old with a diagnosis of IE who were admitted to six Andalusian hospitals during 2008-2020. RESULTS 44 episodes of IE (41 patients) with a median age of 103 months (IQR 37-150 months) were identified. Congenital heart disease (CHD) was the main predisposing factor, identified in 34 cases (77%). A total of 21 (48%) episodes of IE occurred in patients with prosthetic material. These had higher rate of CHD (p = 0.002) and increased end organ dysfunction (p = 0.04) compared to those with native valve. Fever was an almost universal symptom, associated in 23% of the episodes with heart failure. Staphylococcus aureus (25%) followed by coagulase-negative staphylococci (18%) and Streptococcus viridans (14%) were the most frequently isolated microorganisms, and three (7%) patients with central venous catheters had a fungal infection. Thromboembolic events were observed in 30% of the episodes, surgical intervention was required in 48% of cases. Mortality rate was 9%. Prosthetic material and CRP > 140 mg/L were independent predictors of complicated IE. CONCLUSIONS Our findings emphasize the high morbidity of paediatric IE. The information provided could be useful for the identification of epidemiological and clinical profiles of children with IE and complicated forms.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Marta Aboza-García
- Unidad de Infectología e Inmunopatologías Pediátricas, Hospital Universitario Virgen del Rocío, Sevilla, Spain
| | | | - Begoña Carazo-Gallego
- Sección de Infectología Pediátrica, Unidad de Gestión Clínica de Pediatría, Hospital Regional Universitario de Málaga, Málaga, Spain
| | - Elena Roldan-Tormo
- Sección de Infectología Pediátrica, Unidad de Gestión Clínica de Pediatría, Hospital Regional Universitario de Málaga, Málaga, Spain
| | - Beatriz Ruiz-Sáez
- Unidad de Infecciosas Pediátricas, Hospital Universitario Reina Sofía, Córdoba, Spain
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Delgado V, Ajmone Marsan N, de Waha S, Bonaros N, Brida M, Burri H, Caselli S, Doenst T, Ederhy S, Erba PA, Foldager D, Fosbøl EL, Kovac J, Mestres CA, Miller OI, Miro JM, Pazdernik M, Pizzi MN, Quintana E, Rasmussen TB, Ristić AD, Rodés-Cabau J, Sionis A, Zühlke LJ, Borger MA. 2023 ESC Guidelines for the management of endocarditis. Eur Heart J 2023; 44:3948-4042. [PMID: 37622656 DOI: 10.1093/eurheartj/ehad193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 157] [Impact Index Per Article: 157.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/26/2023] Open
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Swiss Evaluation Registry for Pediatric Infective Endocarditis (SERPIE) - Risk factors for complications in children and adolescents with infective endocarditis. Int J Cardiol 2023; 370:463-471. [PMID: 36334644 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijcard.2022.10.173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2022] [Revised: 10/27/2022] [Accepted: 10/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Infective endocarditis (IE) in pediatric patients is a severe cardiac disease and its actual epidemiology and clinical outcome in Switzerland is scarcely studied. METHODS Retrospective nationwide multicenter data analysis of pediatric IE in children (<18 years) between 2011 and 2020. RESULTS 69 patients were treated for definite (40/69;58%) or possible IE (29/69;42%). 61% (42/69) were male. Diagnosis was made at median 6.4 years (IQR 0.8-12.6) of age with 19 patients (28%) during the first year of life. 84% (58/69) had congenital heart defects. IE was located on pulmonary (25/69;35%), mitral (10/69;14%), tricuspid (8/69;12%) and aortic valve (6/69;9%), and rarely on ventricular septal defect (VSD;4/69;6%) and atrial septal defect (ASD;1/69;1%). In 22% (16/69) localization was unknown. 70% (48/69) had postoperative IE, with prosthetic material involved in 60% (29/48; right ventricular to pulmonary artery conduit (24), VSD (4), ASD (1)). Causative organisms were mostly Staphylococci spp. (25;36%) including Staphylococcus aureus (19;28%), and Streptococci spp. (13;19%). 51% (35/69) suffered from severe complications including congestive heart failure (16;23%), sepsis (17;25%) and embolism (19;28%). Staphylococcus aureus was found as a predictor of severe complications in univariate and multivariate analysis (p = 0.02 and p = 0.033). In 46% (32/69) cardiac surgery was performed. 7% (5/69) died. CONCLUSIONS IE in childhood remains a severe cardiac disease with relevant mortality. The high morbidity and high rate of complications is associated with Staphylococcus aureus infections. Congenital heart defects act as a risk factor for IE, in particular the high number of cases associated with prosthetic pulmonary valve needs further evaluation and therapeutic alternatives.
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Endocarditis infecciosa en pacientes pediátricos de Andalucía (España), 2008-2020. Enferm Infecc Microbiol Clin 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.eimc.2022.05.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Bartonella Endocarditis in Spain: Case Reports of 21 Cases. Pathogens 2022; 11:pathogens11050561. [PMID: 35631082 PMCID: PMC9143151 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens11050561] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2022] [Revised: 05/03/2022] [Accepted: 05/05/2022] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Blood culture negative endocarditis (BCNE) is frequent in infective endocarditis (IE). One of the causes of BCNE is fastidious microorganisms, such as Bartonella spp. The aim of this study was to describe the epidemiologic, clinical characteristics, management and outcomes of patients with Bartonella IE from the “Spanish Collaboration on Endocarditis-Grupo de Apoyo al Manejo de la Endocarditis infecciosa en España (GAMES)”cohort. Here we presented 21 cases of Bartonella IE. This represents 0.3% of a total of 5590 cases and 2% of the BCNE from the GAMES cohort. 62% were due to Bartonella henselae and 38% to Bartonella quintana. Cardiac failure was the main presenting form (61.5% in B. hensalae, 87.5% in B. quintana IE) and the aortic valve was affected in 85% of the cases (76% in B. henselae, 100% in B. quintana IE). Typical signs such as fever were recorded in less than 40% of patients. Echocardiography showed vegetations in 92% and 100% of the patients with B. henselae and B. quintana, respectively. Culture was positive only in one patient and the remaining were diagnosed by serology and PCR. PCR was the most useful tool allowing for diagnosis in 16 patients (100% of the studied valves). Serology, at titers recommended by guidelines, only coincided with PCR in 52.4%. Antimicrobial therapy, in different combinations, was used in all cases. Surgery was performed in 76% of the patients. No in-hospital mortality was observed. One-year mortality was 9.4%. This article remarks the importance for investigating the presence of Bartonella infection as causative agent in all BCNE since the diagnosis needs specific microbiological tools and patients could benefit of a specific treatment.
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Epidemiology of infective endocarditis in Africa: a systematic review and meta-analysis. THE LANCET GLOBAL HEALTH 2022; 10:e77-e86. [DOI: 10.1016/s2214-109x(21)00400-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2021] [Revised: 08/16/2021] [Accepted: 08/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
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Eleyan L, Khan AA, Musollari G, Chandiramani AS, Shaikh S, Salha A, Tarmahomed A, Harky A. Infective endocarditis in paediatric population. Eur J Pediatr 2021; 180:3089-3100. [PMID: 33852085 DOI: 10.1007/s00431-021-04062-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2021] [Revised: 03/26/2021] [Accepted: 04/04/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Infective endocarditis is very uncommon in children; however, when it does arise, it can lead to severe consequences. The biggest risk factor for paediatric infective endocarditis today is underlying congenital heart defects. The most common causative organisms are Staphylococcus aureus and the viridans group of streptococci. The spectrum of symptoms varies widely in children and this produces difficulty in the diagnosis of infective endocarditis. Infective endocarditis in children is reliant on the modified Duke criteria. The use of blood cultures remains the most effective microbiological test for pathogen identification. However, in blood culture-negative infective endocarditis, serology testing and IgG titres are more effective for diagnosis. Imaging techniques used include echocardiograms, computed tomography and positron emission tomography. Biomarkers utilised in diagnosis are C-reactive protein, with recent literature reviewing the use of interleukin-15 and C-C motif chemokine ligand for reliable risk prediction. The American Heart Association (AHA) and European Society of Cardiology (ESC) guidelines have been compared to describe the differences in the approach to infective endocarditis in children. Medical intervention involves the use of antimicrobial treatment and surgical interventions include the repair and replacement of cardiac valves. Quality of life is highly likely to improve from surgical intervention.Conclusion: Over the past decades, there have been great advancements in clinical practice to improve outcomes in patients with infective endocarditis. Nonetheless, further work is required to better investigative and manage such high risk cohort. What is Known: • The current diagnostic techniques including 'Duke's criteria' for paediatric infective endocarditis diagnosis • The current management guidelines utilised for paediatric infective endocarditis What is New: • The long-term outcomes of patients that underwent medical and surgical intervention • The quality of life of paediatric patients that underwent medical and surgical intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Loay Eleyan
- School of Medicine, Faculty of Health and Life Science, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
| | - Ameer Ahmed Khan
- School of Medicine, Faculty of Health and Life Science, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
| | - Gledisa Musollari
- Imperial College London, Exhibition Road, South Kensington, London, SW7 2BU, UK
| | | | - Simran Shaikh
- St. Georges University of London, Cranmer Terrace, Tooting, London, SW17 0RE, UK
| | - Ahmad Salha
- St. Georges University of London, Cranmer Terrace, Tooting, London, SW17 0RE, UK
| | - Abdulla Tarmahomed
- Department of Paediatric Cardiology, Alder Hey Children's Hospital, Liverpool, UK
| | - Amer Harky
- Department of Congenital Cardiac Surgery, Alder Hey Children Hospital, Liverpool, UK. .,Department of Cardio-thoracic Surgery, Liverpool Heart and Chest Hospital, Liverpool, UK.
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Mahony M, Lean D, Pham L, Horvath R, Suna J, Ward C, Veerappan S, Versluis K, Nourse C. Infective Endocarditis in Children in Queensland, Australia: Epidemiology, Clinical Features and Outcome. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2021; 40:617-622. [PMID: 33902079 DOI: 10.1097/inf.0000000000003110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Infective endocarditis (IE) is a rare entity in children associated with significant morbidity and mortality. To optimize management, it is important to understand local epidemiology, risk factors, clinical features and outcome. These are investigated in this retrospective 10-year study of endocarditis in children in Queensland. METHODS Children <18 years with IE were identified from the state-wide pediatric cardiology center (Mater Children's Hospital, 2009-2014; Queensland Children's Hospital, 2014-2018) through International Classification of Diseases codes and local cardiology database. Clinical records were assessed by a clinician and echocardiograms by a cardiologist. Incidence was calculated using Australian Bureau of Statistics Queensland Estimated Resident Population data, 2019. RESULTS Fifty-one children were identified, with an overall estimated incidence of 0.84 per 100,000 per year; 0.69 per 100,000 in 2009-2013 and 0.99 per 100,000 in 2014-2018, respectively. Twenty-four (47.1%) children were male and 10 (19.6%) were identified as Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander peoples. Underlying cardiac conditions were present in 29 (56.9%): 25 congenital heart disease, 3 rheumatic heart disease and 1 cardiomyopathy. A causative pathogen was identified in 46 (90.2%) children with Staphylococcus aureus most common. Thirty-six (70.6%) met criteria for "Definite IE" as per modified Duke criteria, with the remainder "Possible IE." Surgery was required in 26 (51%). Median duration of antibiotics was 42 (interquartile range = 32-51) days and hospitalization 49 (interquartile range = 34-75) days. One child died due to IE. CONCLUSIONS IE in children in Queensland is increasing in incidence and is higher than the reported incidence in New Zealand and the United States. Congenital heart disease is the most common risk factor and S. aureus is the commonest responsible organism. Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander children are over-represented. Mortality remains low.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelle Mahony
- From the Infection Management and Prevention Service, Queensland Children's Hospital, Brisbane, Australia
| | - David Lean
- Paediatric Department, Nazarene General Hospital, Papua New Guinea
| | - Lily Pham
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Robert Horvath
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
- Infective Endocarditis Queensland [ieQ], Brisbane, Australia
- The Prince Charles Hospital, Brisbane, Australia
- Pathology Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Jessica Suna
- Queensland Paediatric Cardiac Service
- Queensland Paediatric Cardiac Research, Queensland Children's Hospital, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Cameron Ward
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
- Queensland Paediatric Cardiac Service
- Queensland Paediatric Cardiac Research, Queensland Children's Hospital, Brisbane, Australia
| | | | - Kathryn Versluis
- Queensland Paediatric Cardiac Research, Queensland Children's Hospital, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Clare Nourse
- From the Infection Management and Prevention Service, Queensland Children's Hospital, Brisbane, Australia
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
- Infective Endocarditis Queensland [ieQ], Brisbane, Australia
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Relationship between death and admission of pediatric patients to intensive care due to Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia acquired in the community, 2014-2017. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2021; 41:145-152. [PMID: 33761197 PMCID: PMC8055594 DOI: 10.7705/biomedica.5275] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2019] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Introducción La bacteriemia por Staphylococcus aureus adquirida en la comunidad (SA-AC) es una condición frecuente en pediatría que, además, constituye un problema de salud pública por las altas tasas de morbimortalidad y de resistencia bacteriana. Objetivos Analizar los factores relacionados con la muerte y el ingreso a cuidados intensivos de pacientes menores de 18 años con bacteriemia por SA-AC que ingresaron al Hospital Infantil Los Ángeles de Pasto, Colombia, entre el 2014 y el 2017. Materiales y métodos Se hizo un estudio observacional descriptivo y transversal. Se analizaron 86 pacientes con bacteriemia por SA-AC que cumplían los criterios de inclusión en el estudio utilizando un modelo multivariado de regresión logística. Resultados El 25,6% de los 86 pacientes falleció y el 40,7% ingresó a la unidad de cuidados intensivos. La resistencia a la meticilina fue de 52,3%. Los focos principales de infección fueron los tejidos blandos, el sistema osteoarticular y el respiratorio. El 32,6% de los pacientes provenía de la zona del Pacífico de Nariño. Las etnias predominantes fueron la mestiza y la indígena. Entre los indígenas hubo mayor mortalidad que entre mestizos y afrocolombianos. En el análisis multivariado de la variable de muerte, se registró significación de la endocarditis (odds ratio, OR ajustado=20; IC95%1,5-254; p=0,02); no se registró significación estadística en cuanto al ingreso en la unidad de cuidados intensivos. Conclusiones La bacteriemia por SA-AC determinó altas tasas de mortalidad e ingreso a la unidad de cuidados intensivos. Las cepas resistentes representaron el 52,3%, y la resistencia a la meticilina desembocó en una mayor mortalidad, aunque la mortalidad con cepas sensibles también fue considerable. La endocarditis fue responsable de una mortalidad bastante elevada. Se debe ajustar el tratamiento empírico cuando se sospeche bacteriemia por SA-AC.
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Time-trend population analysis of the clinical and epidemiologic effect on pediatric infective endocarditis after change of antibiotic prophylaxis guidelines. Infection 2020; 48:671-678. [PMID: 32356253 DOI: 10.1007/s15010-020-01433-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2020] [Accepted: 04/23/2020] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE In 2007, antibiotic prophylaxis (AP) guidelines for infective endocarditis (IE) changed, but the possible influence on the annual incidences of pediatric IE is unclear. METHODS We studied the clinical and epidemiologic impact of AP change by comparing two time periods before and after change of AP guidelines in a tertiary care center as referral center for a total population of more than 4,500,000 inhabitants. RESULTS After change of AP guidelines, twenty-five patients were diagnosed for IE at a median age of 6.9 years (range 0.1-19.4, female 48%). Modified Duke criteria were fulfilled for definite (12/25; 48%), or probable IE (13/25; 52%). The frequency of IE (cases per 1000 hospitalized patients) increased from 0.37% (1995-2005) to 0.59% (2006-2017) [p = 0.152], the annual incidence of IE (cases per 1000 CHD patients, < 20 years of age) increased from 0.195 ‰ to 0.399 ‰ [p = 0.072]. Postoperative IE (13/25; 52%), was associated mostly with prosthetic pulmonary valves (12/13; 92%). Pathogens were staphylococci spp. (8/25; 32%), streptococci spp. (7/25; 28%), HACEK (3/25; 12%), other (4/25; 16%), or culture-negative (3/25; 12%). Treatment included antibiotics (25/25; 100%), and cardiac surgery (16/25; 64%). The clinical findings and complications of pediatric IE including mortality (2/25; 8%) did not differ between the two time periods. CONCLUSIONS Pediatric IE remains a severe cardiac disease with a comparable clinical picture. Unless increasing absolute case numbers of IE, the relative case number of IE remains stable despite AP change. The high number of prosthetic pulmonary valve associated IE needs further evaluation and therapeutic alternatives.
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Rheumatic fever and rheumatic heart disease: Facts and research progress in Africa. Int J Cardiol 2019; 295:48-55. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijcard.2019.07.079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2019] [Accepted: 07/24/2019] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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Thom K, Hanslik A, Russell JL, Williams S, Sivaprakasam P, Allen U, Male C, Brandão LR. Incidence of infective endocarditis and its thromboembolic complications in a pediatric population over 30years. Int J Cardiol 2017; 252:74-79. [PMID: 29126655 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijcard.2017.10.085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2017] [Revised: 10/13/2017] [Accepted: 10/23/2017] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Pediatric infective endocarditis (IE) has been associated with high morbidity and mortality, mostly related to thromboembolic complications (TEC). The objective of our study was to describe the experience in children with IE and to review the changes over a thirty-year period, regarding origin of IE, incidence of vegetations, TEC and their respective morbidity and mortality rates. METHODS A retrospective chart review of children aged 0-18years with IE defined by the Duke Criteria and admitted to The Hospital for Sick Children, was conducted. Data were divided into three periods (P); P1 (1979-1988); P2 (1989-1998); and P3 (1999-2008). RESULTS The study included 113 patients, median age 7yrs.; females: 46 (41%), congenital heart defects 95 (84%), comparable in all periods. Overall, cardiac vegetations were found in 68/113 patients (60%); large vegetations (≥1cm) in 32 patients (28%). Fourty-five (45/133 [40%]) TEC were documented, 22 patients (20%) developed cerebrovascular events (CVE) and 23 patients (20%) had non-CVE. Patients diagnosed during P3 were older, had more vegetations (p<0.05), and a higher incidence of community acquired-IE (p<0.05). Overall, mortality was 15%, comparable in all periods. Significant risk factors for mortality were vegetations (HR 6.44; 95% CI: 2.07-20.01, p=0.002) and heart failure (HR 28.39; 95% CI: 10.49-76.85, p<0.001). CONCLUSIONS Over the study period, we report a growing incidence of community acquired pediatric IE in older children accompanied by an increasing rate of TEC. Heart failure and vegetations were associated with an increased mortality. These preliminary data need to be confirmed by prospective data.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Thom
- Pediatric Haematology/Oncology, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Canada; Division of Pediatric Cardiology, Department of Children and Adolescent Medicine, Medical University Vienna, Austria
| | - A Hanslik
- Division of Pediatric Cardiology, Department of Children and Adolescent Medicine, Medical University Vienna, Austria
| | - J L Russell
- Pediatric Cardiology, Labatt Family Heart Centre, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Canada
| | - S Williams
- Pediatric Haematology/Oncology, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Canada
| | - P Sivaprakasam
- Pediatric Haematology/Oncology, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Canada
| | - U Allen
- Infectious Disease, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Canada
| | - C Male
- Division of Pediatric Cardiology, Department of Children and Adolescent Medicine, Medical University Vienna, Austria
| | - L R Brandão
- Pediatric Haematology/Oncology, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Canada.
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