1
|
Charnock T, Drummond A, Hall LC, Sauer JD. The associations between autistic characteristics and microtransaction spending. Sci Rep 2024; 14:14068. [PMID: 38890438 PMCID: PMC11189550 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-64812-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2023] [Accepted: 06/13/2024] [Indexed: 06/20/2024] Open
Abstract
Microtransactions provide optional, virtual, video game goods that, for an additional cost to the player, provide additional game content and alter the gameplay experience. Loot boxes-a specific form of microtransaction-offer randomised rewards in exchange for payment, and are argued to be structurally and psychologically similar to gambling. Nascent research suggests that a link exists between autism and both problematic gaming and problematic gambling. Here, we investigated the relationships between autistic characteristics and experiences, and excessive video gaming and microtransaction expenditure. A sample of 1178 adults from Australia, Aotearoa, and The United States were recruited from Prolific Academic, and completed a survey measuring in-game expenditure, autistic characteristics and experiences, problematic gaming, problematic gambling, and risky loot box use. Analyses showed positive associations between autistic characteristics and experiences with problematic gaming and problem gambling symptomatology. However, results also showed a small, negative association between autistic characteristics and experiences and spending on loot boxes when problem gambling symptoms, problematic gaming, and risky loot box use were statistically controlled for. These results suggest that autistic gamers may be vulnerable to problematic gaming and gambling, but that this effect does not extend to the purchasing of microtransactions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tegan Charnock
- School of Psychological Sciences, University of Tasmania, Launceston, Australia
| | - Aaron Drummond
- School of Psychological Sciences, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Australia
| | - Lauren C Hall
- Australian Institute of Health Service Management, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Australia
| | - James D Sauer
- School of Psychological Sciences, University of Tasmania, Launceston, Australia.
- School of Psychological Sciences, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Australia.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Spicer SG, Close J, Nicklin LL, Uther M, Whalley B, Fullwood C, Parke J, Lloyd J, Lloyd H. Exploring the relationships between psychological variables and loot box engagement, part 2: exploratory analyses of complex relationships. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2024; 11:231046. [PMID: 38179078 PMCID: PMC10762439 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.231046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2023] [Accepted: 11/27/2023] [Indexed: 01/06/2024]
Abstract
In a pre-registered survey linked to this paper (Exploring the relationships between psychological variables and loot box engagement, part 1: pre-registered hypotheses), we confirmed bivariate associations between engagement with loot boxes (purchasable randomized rewards in video games) and measures of problem gambling, problem video gaming, impulsivity, gambling cognitions, experiences of game-related 'flow', psychological distress and reduced wellbeing. However, these variables have complex relationships, so to gain further insights, we analysed the dataset (1495 gamers who purchase loot boxes and 1223 purchasers of non-randomized content) in a series of Bayesian mixed-effects multiple regressions with a zero-inflation component. The results challenge some well-established results in the literature, including associations between loot box engagement and problematic gambling measures, instead suggesting that this relationship might be underpinned by shared variance with problem video gaming and gambling-related cognitions. An entirely novel discovery revealed a complex interaction between experiences of flow and loot box engagement. Distress and wellbeing are both (somewhat contradictorily) predictive of participants engaging with loot boxes, but neither correlate with increasing loot box risky engagement/spend (among those who engage). Our findings unravel some of the nuances underpinning loot box engagement, yet remain consistent with narratives that policy action on loot boxes will have benefits for harm minimization.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Stuart Gordon Spicer
- Community and Primary Care Research Group (CPCRG), ITTC Building, Davy Road, Plymouth Science Park, Derriford, Plymouth PL6 8BX, UK
| | - James Close
- Peninsula Medical School (Faculty of Health), University of Plymouth, Plymouth Devon PL4 8AA, UK
- School of Psychology, University of Plymouth, Plymouth Devon PL4 8AA, UK
| | - Laura Louise Nicklin
- School of Education, Faculty of Education, Health and Wellbeing, University of Wolverhampton, Wolverhampton WS1 3BD, UK
| | - Maria Uther
- Enterprise and Innovation, Faculty of Health, Education and Life Sciences, Birmingham City University, Seacole Building, Edgbaston Campus, Birmingham, UK
| | - Ben Whalley
- School of Psychology, University of Plymouth, Plymouth Devon PL4 8AA, UK
| | - Chris Fullwood
- School of Natural, Sport and Social Sciences, University of Gloucestershire, Cheltenham, UK
| | | | - Joanne Lloyd
- Cyberpsychology Research Group, School of Psychology, Faculty of Education, Health and Wellbeing, University of Wolverhampton, Wolverhampton WV1 1LY, UK
| | - Helen Lloyd
- Enterprise and Innovation, Faculty of Health, Education and Life Sciences, Birmingham City University, Seacole Building, Edgbaston Campus, Birmingham, UK
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Close J, Spicer SG, Nicklin LL, Uther M, Whalley B, Fullwood C, Parke J, Lloyd J, Lloyd H. Exploring the relationships between psychological variables and loot box engagement, part 1: pre-registered hypotheses. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2023; 10:231045. [PMID: 38126068 PMCID: PMC10731324 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.231045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2023] [Accepted: 11/27/2023] [Indexed: 12/23/2023]
Abstract
Loot boxes are purchasable randomized rewards in video games that share structural and psychological similarities with gambling. Systematic review evidence has established reproducible associations between loot box purchasing and both problem gambling and problem video gaming, perhaps driven by a range of overlapping psychological processes (e.g. impulsivity, gambling-related cognitions, etc.) It has also been argued that loot box engagement may have negative influences on player financial and psychological wellbeing. We conducted a pre-registered survey of 1495 loot box purchasing gamers (LB cohort) and 1223 gamers who purchase other, non-randomized game content (nLB cohort). Our survey confirms 15 of our 23 pre-registered hypotheses against our primary outcome (risky loot box engagement), establishing associations with problem gambling, problem gaming, impulsivity, gambling cognitions, experiences of game-related 'flow' and specific 'distraction and compulsion' motivations for purchase. Results with hypotheses concerning potential harms established that risky loot box engagement was negatively correlated with wellbeing and positively correlated with distress. Overall, results indicate that any risks from loot boxes are liable to disproportionately affect various 'at risk' cohorts (e.g. those experiencing problem gambling or video gaming), thereby reiterating calls for policy action on loot boxes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- James Close
- Peninsula Medical School, Faculty of Health, University of Plymouth, Plymouth PL4 8AA, UK
- School of Psychology, University of Plymouth, Plymouth PL4 8AA, UK
| | - Stuart Gordon Spicer
- Community and Primary Care Research Group (CPCRG), ITTC Building, Davy Road, Plymouth Science Park, Derriford, Plymouth PL6 8BX, UK
| | - Laura Louise Nicklin
- School of Education, Faculty of Education, Health and Wellbeing, University of Wolverhampton, Wolverhampton WS1 3BD, UK
| | - Maria Uther
- Enterprise and Innovation, Faculty of Health, Education and Life Sciences, Birmingham City University, Seacole Building, Edgbaston Campus, Birmingham, UK
| | - Ben Whalley
- School of Psychology, University of Plymouth, Plymouth PL4 8AA, UK
| | - Chris Fullwood
- School of Natural, Sport and Social Sciences, University of Gloucestershire, Cheltenham, UK
| | | | - Joanne Lloyd
- Cyberpsychology Research Group, Department of Psychology, Faculty of Education, Health and Wellbeing, University of Wolverhampton, Wolverhampton WV1 1LY, UK
| | - Helen Lloyd
- School of Psychology, University of Plymouth, Plymouth PL4 8AA, UK
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Sirola A, Nyrhinen J, Nuckols J, Wilska TA. Loot box purchasing and indebtedness: The role of psychosocial factors and problem gambling. Addict Behav Rep 2023; 18:100516. [PMID: 37915884 PMCID: PMC10616135 DOI: 10.1016/j.abrep.2023.100516] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2023] [Revised: 09/01/2023] [Accepted: 10/12/2023] [Indexed: 11/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction Loot boxes are increasingly common random-reward monetization mechanisms in digital games. They are popular among gamblers and pose various risks due to their gambling-like nature, but little is known about psychosocial vulnerabilities and financial consequences of purchasing them. This article examined psychosocial associations with self-reported increase in loot box purchasing and indebtedness among past-year gamblers during the COVID-19 pandemic. Methods Cross-sectional survey data were collected in April 2021 from Finnish, Swedish, and British past-year gamblers aged 18 to 75 (n = 2,022). Measures of loneliness, psychological resilience, and problem gambling were studied in relation to loot box purchasing and indebtedness. Structural equation modeling was used as an analytical technique. Results Loneliness was positively associated with self-reported increase in loot box purchasing. No evidence was found regarding the protective role of psychological resilience in loot box purchasing. Increased loot box purchasing was associated with problem gambling. Problem gambling mediated the relationship between loot box purchasing and indebtedness. Conclusions The findings bring valuable insight into the psychosocial vulnerabilities and financial consequences in loot box purchasing. Loot box purchasing can add to one's financial strain particularly among vulnerable individuals such as problem gamblers, making it crucial to regulate such monetization practices.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anu Sirola
- The Department of Social Sciences and Philosophy, University of Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Jussi Nyrhinen
- The Department of Social Sciences and Philosophy, University of Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Julia Nuckols
- The Department of Social Sciences and Philosophy, University of Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Terhi-Anna Wilska
- The Department of Social Sciences and Philosophy, University of Jyväskylä, Finland
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Király O, Koncz P, Griffiths MD, Demetrovics Z. Gaming disorder: A summary of its characteristics and aetiology. Compr Psychiatry 2023; 122:152376. [PMID: 36764098 DOI: 10.1016/j.comppsych.2023.152376] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2022] [Revised: 01/30/2023] [Accepted: 01/31/2023] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
The emergence, development, and maintenance of gaming disorder (GD) is the result of an interplay between gaming-related factors, individual factors, and environmental factors. None of these alone are sufficient to cause a disordered state, but it is the interactive co-occurrence of all these factors, which in some cases leads to GD. The goal of the present paper is to discuss in detail these three factors based on relevant and recent findings of the literature. Among gaming-related factors, we discuss online vs. offline videogames, the role of game genres, structural characteristics, game design elements, as well as some important monetization techniques. Among individual factors demographic risk factors, personality traits, motivational factors, comorbid psychopathology, genetic predisposition, and neurobiological processes are considered. Finally, among environmental factors we discuss family factors, early life experiences, the role of peers and school-related factors, as well as the broader context of culture including the popularity of esports.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Orsolya Király
- Institute of Psychology, ELTE Eötvös Loránd University, Budapest, Hungary.
| | - Patrik Koncz
- Institute of Psychology, ELTE Eötvös Loránd University, Budapest, Hungary; Doctoral School of Psychology, ELTE Eötvös Loránd University, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Mark D Griffiths
- International Gaming Research Unit, Psychology Department, Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham, United Kingdom
| | - Zsolt Demetrovics
- Institute of Psychology, ELTE Eötvös Loránd University, Budapest, Hungary; Centre of Excellence in Responsible Gaming at the University of Gibraltar, Gibraltar
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Garrett EP, Drummond A, Lowe-Calverley E, de Salas K, Lewis I, Sauer JD. Impulsivity and loot box engagement. TELEMATICS AND INFORMATICS 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tele.2023.101952] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/18/2023]
|
7
|
Delfabbro P, King D. The evolution of young gambling studies: digital convergence of gaming, gambling and cryptocurrency technologies. INTERNATIONAL GAMBLING STUDIES 2023. [DOI: 10.1080/14459795.2023.2171469] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Paul Delfabbro
- School of Psychology, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia
| | - Daniel King
- College of Education, Psychology and Social Work, Flinders University, Adelaide, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Loot box purchases and their relationship with internet gaming disorder and online gambling disorder in adolescents: A prospective study. COMPUTERS IN HUMAN BEHAVIOR 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chb.2023.107685] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
|
9
|
Delfabbro P, Delic A, King DL. Understanding the mechanics and consumer risks associated with play-to-earn (P2E) gaming. J Behav Addict 2022; 11:716-726. [PMID: 36083777 PMCID: PMC9872537 DOI: 10.1556/2006.2022.00066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2022] [Revised: 07/20/2022] [Accepted: 08/19/2022] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS Play-to-earn (P2E) gaming is a newly emerging form of gaming increasingly based on blockchain technology. In this paper, we examine the mechanics and business model of these games and their potential benefits and risks for players. METHODS The paper draws upon and critically synthesises the developing published literature on predatory monetization in gaming as well as objective market data drawn from credible online sources. RESULTS P2E gaming blurs the boundaries between gaming and trading and may not yield many of the benefits promoted to consumers or otherwise conveyed through marketing and social media messaging. Particular risks include the deflationary nature of reward currencies and the asymmetric reward structures that heavily favour early investors and exploit late adopters. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS This paper highlights the need for greater consumer awareness of the mechanics and risks of these new gaming models. It will be important for business models to be more transparent and designed so as to encourage more equitable game outcomes, sustainable returns, a balance between intrinsic and extrinsic rewards, and protection for potentially vulnerable players.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Paul Delfabbro
- School of Psychology, University of Adelaide, Australia,Corresponding author. E-mail:
| | - Amelia Delic
- School of Psychology, University of Adelaide, Australia
| | - Daniel L. King
- College of Education, Psychology and Social Work, Flinders University, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Forsström D, Chahin G, Savander S, Mentzoni RA, Gainsbury S. Measuring loot box consumption and negative consequences: psychometric investigation of a Swedish version of the Risky Loot Box Index. Addict Behav Rep 2022; 16:100453. [PMID: 36134206 PMCID: PMC9483729 DOI: 10.1016/j.abrep.2022.100453] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2022] [Revised: 08/19/2022] [Accepted: 08/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Loot Box use and purchases have potentially addictive qualities. An instrument, the Risky Loot Box Index, was psychometrically evaluated in a Swedish populations. A revised scale consisting of a two factor seven item scale was the best fit. The revised scale measures overconsumption in relation time spent on loot boxes and purchases of loot boxes. The instrument can be used to measure the potentially addictive qualities of loot box use. This is important since loot box use, and purchases has been linked to problem gambling.
Loot boxes are products in videogames that is earned by playing a video game or by buying them. Loot boxes has similar mechanisms as a lottery and there is an ongoing debate if loot boxes are gambling. However, to understand the potential harm of loot boxes valid instruments are needed. An English study psychometrically evaluated an instrument focused on risky loot box use called the Risky Loot Box Index. The study evaluated 12 item scale and based on a factor analysis it was reduced to a five-item scale. The aim of our study is to evaluate a Swedish version of the 12-item instrument from a psychometric perspective. Two samples recruited via an online survey were used. The first sample was recruited from the gambling site Unibet. A mail with an invitation to participate was sent to esports bettors and sport bettors at the gambling site. The second sample was recruited from a Facebook forum focused on e-sports. An invitation was posted on the forum to partake in the study. A total of 195 of respondents (96% men and 4% women) with a mean age of 33.76 (SD = 12.34) answered the Unibet survey and 169 respondents (96% men and 4% women and non-binary) with a mean age of 23.89 (SD = 5.52) answered the Facebook survey. An exploratory factor analysis yielded a two-factor seven item solution. The factors were overconsumption regarding time spent on loot boxes and the other factor was focused on overconsumption of loot boxes in terms of spending money. The confirmatory factor analysis conducted in the Facebook sample validated the result from the exploratory factor analysis. The conclusion of the study is that the Swedish version of the Risky Loot Index has good psychometric properties and can used to measure risky loot box consumption.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- David Forsström
- Centre for Psychiatry Research, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet & Stockholm Health Care Services, Region Stockholm, Stockholm, Sweden
- Department of Psychology, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
- Corresponding author at: Centre for Psychiatry Research, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, & Stockholm Health Care Services, Region Stockholm, Stockholm, Sweden. The Centre for Psychotherapy, Education & Research, Liljeholmstorget 7, SE-117 63 Stockholm, Sweden.
| | - Gabriel Chahin
- Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Samuel Savander
- Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Rune A. Mentzoni
- Department of Psychosocial Science, University of Bergen, Norway
| | - Sally Gainsbury
- School of Psychology, Brain and Mind Centre, Faculty of Science, University of Sydney, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Duan Y, Xu S, Wang Y, Zhang Y, Wang Y, Chen R. Blind box over-engagement and suicide risk among adolescents and young adults: Results of a large-scale survey. EClinicalMedicine 2022; 51:101575. [PMID: 35875818 PMCID: PMC9304904 DOI: 10.1016/j.eclinm.2022.101575] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2022] [Revised: 07/01/2022] [Accepted: 07/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Gambling appears to be an independent risk factor for suicide among the young population worldwide. Blind boxes are collectable toys packed randomly in the box, which share certain similarities with gambling and are popular among the young population. This is the first study that examined the association between blind box engagement and suicide risk in the young population, the leading consumption group of blind boxes. METHODS This study is part of a large-scale, cross-sectional study using convenience sampling conducted Oct 26 to Nov 18, 2021, which covered all the university and college students in the Jilin province, China. A total of 73,206 participants completed the survey with valid data for the current study (male: N = 28,762; female: N = 44,444; Mean age = 19·59). Participants' blind box engagement, suicide risk, depression, anxiety, alcohol use, smoking habit, and sociodemographic characteristics were assessed. First, we used univariate and multivariable binary logistic regression models to examine the relationship between blind box engagement and suicide risk in all participants. Second, we tested whether depression and anxiety would mediate the association between blind box engagement and suicide risk. Third, we analysed the association between "Frequency (i.e., frequency of blind box engagement)," "Bet (i.e., expenditure on the blind box that exceeds affordability)," "Tolerance (i.e., level of addiction)," "Borrowed (i.e., the amount of money borrowed for blind box engagement)," and suicide risk in the group with blind box engagement history. FINDINGS 4,195 participants (5·73%) have engaged in blind boxes, with 3,255 females (77·59%) and 940 males (22·41%). In the univariate models, binary logistic regression showed that blind box engagement was associated with suicide risk in both male and female participants (male: OR = 2·21, 95% CI = 1·86-2·63; female: OR = 1·64, 95% CI = 1·50-1·78). In the multivariable models, after controlling age, subjective socioeconomic status, per capita disposable income, alcohol use, and smoking habit, blind box engagement still was associated with suicide risk across genders (male: OR = 2·25, 95% CI = 1·89-2·68; female: OR = 1·58, 95% CI = 1·45-1·73). Depression (male: indirect effect = 0·31, SE = 0·04, p < 0·001; female: indirect effect = 0·20, SE = 0·02, p < 0·001) and anxiety (male: indirect effect = 0·26, SE = 0·03, p < 0·001; female: indirect effect = 0·13, SE = 0·02, p < 0·001) mediate the association between blind box engagement and suicide risk. Within the blind box engagement group, forward binary logistic regression revealed that "Tolerance" was associated with participants' suicide risk in both males (p = 0·001) and females (p < 0·001); "Borrowed" (p = 0·019) alone was associated with the male participants' suicide risk. INTERPRETATION Our findings showed that blind box over-engagement is positively associated with suicide risk in both young males and females, and this association persisted after adjusting for influencing factors. In spite of the limitations in this study (e.g., cross-sectional, convenience sampling), current findings can assist policymakers in developing regulations for such a prosperous youth-dominant consumption industry while protecting youth's mental health worldwide. FUNDING None.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yinan Duan
- Vanke School of Public Health, Tsinghua University, 100084 Beijing, China
| | - Shicun Xu
- Northeast Asian Research Center, Jilin University, Changchun 130012, China
- Department of Population, Resources and Environment, Northeast Asian Studies College, Jilin University, Changchun 130012, China
- China Center for Aging Studies and Social-Economic Development, Jilin University, Changchun 130012, China
- Corresponding authors.
| | - Yinzhe Wang
- Vanke School of Public Health, Tsinghua University, 100084 Beijing, China
| | - Yanwen Zhang
- Vanke School of Public Health, Tsinghua University, 100084 Beijing, China
| | - Yuanyuan Wang
- Key Laboratory of Brain, Cognition and Education Sciences, Ministry of Education, China; School of Psychology, Center for Studies of Psychological Application, and Guangdong Key Laboratory of Mental Health and Cognitive Science, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510000, China
- Corresponding authors.
| | - Runsen Chen
- Vanke School of Public Health, Tsinghua University, 100084 Beijing, China
- Institute for Healthy China, Tsinghua University, 100084 Beijing, China
- Corresponding authors.
| |
Collapse
|