Novel nanomedicine-based MRI contrast agents for gynecological malignancies

A Journey of Challenges and Victories: A Bibliometric Worldview of Nanomedicine since the 21st Century

Nanotechnology profoundly affects the advancement of medicine. Limitations in diagnosing and treating cancer and chronic diseases promote the growth of nanomedicine. However, there are very few analytical and descriptive studies regarding the trajectory of nanomedicine, key research powers, present research landscape, focal investigative points, and future outlooks. Herein, articles and reviews published in the Science Citation Index Expanded of Web of Science Core Collection from first January 2000 to 18th July 2023 are analyzed. Herein, a bibliometric visualization of publication trends, countries/regions, institutions, journals, research categories, themes, references, and keywords is produced and elaborated. Nanomedicine-related academic output is increasing since the COVID-19 pandemic, solidifying the uneven global distribution of research performance. While China leads in terms of publication quantity and has numerous highly productive institutions, the USA has advantages in academic impact, commercialization, and industrial value. Nanomedicine integrates with other disciplines, establishing interdisciplinary platforms, in which drug delivery and nanoparticles remain focal points. Current research focuses on integrating nanomedicine and cell ferroptosis induction in cancer immunotherapy. The keyword "burst testing" identifies promising research directions, including immunogenic cell death, chemodynamic therapy, tumor microenvironment, immunotherapy, and extracellular vesicles. The prospects, major challenges, and barriers to addressing these directions are discussed.

Nanoparticles and Mesenchymal Stem Cell (MSC) Therapy for Cancer Treatment: Focus on Nanocarriers and a si-RNA CXCR4 Chemokine Blocker as Strategies for Tumor Eradication In Vitro and In Vivo

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have a high tropism for the hypoxic microenvironment of tumors. The combination of nanoparticles in MSCs decreases tumor growth in vitro as well as in rodent models of cancers in vivo. Covalent conjugation of nanoparticles with the surface of MSCs can significantly increase the drug load delivery in tumor sites. Nanoparticle-based anti-angiogenic systems (gold, silica and silicates, diamond, silver, and copper) prevented tumor growth in vitro. For example, glycolic acid polyconjugates enhance nanoparticle drug delivery and have been reported in human MSCs. Labeling with fluorescent particles (coumarin-6 dye) identified tumor cells using fluorescence emission in tissues; the conjugation of different types of nanoparticles in MSCs ensured success and feasibility by tracking the migration and its intratumor detection using non-invasive imaging techniques. However, the biosafety and efficacy; long-term stability of nanoparticles, and the capacity for drug release must be improved for clinical implementation. In fact, MSCs are vehicles for drug delivery with nanoparticles and also show low toxicity but inefficient accumulation in tumor sites by clearance of reticuloendothelial organs. To solve these problems, the internalization or conjugation of drug-loaded nanoparticles should be improved in MSCs. Finally, CXCR4 may prove to be a promising target for immunotherapy and cancer treatment since the delivery of siRNA to knock down this alpha chemokine receptor or CXCR4 antagonism has been shown to disrupt tumor-stromal interactions.

Challenges and Opportunities Associated With Drug Delivery for the Treatment of Solid Tumors

In this review, we discuss the effectiveness of drug delivery system based on metal nanoparticles, and also, describe the problems associated with their delivery to tumor cells. Throughout recent years, more reports have appeared in the literature that demonstrate promising results for the treatment of various types of cancer using metal-based nanoparticles. Due to their unique physical and chemical properties, metal nanoparticles are effectively being used for the delivery of drug to the tumor cells, for cancer diagnosis and treatment. They can also be synthesized allowing the control of size and shape. However, the effectiveness of the metal nanoparticles for cancer treatment largely depends on their stability, biocompatibility, and ability to selectively affect tumor cells after their systemic or local administration. Another major problem associated with metal nanoparticles is their ability to overcome tumor tissue barriers such as atypical blood vessel structure, dense and rigid extracellular matrix, and high pressure of tumor interstitial fluid. The review also describes the design of tumor drug delivery systems that are based on metal nanoparticles. The mechanism of action of metal nanoparticles on cancer cells is also discussed. Considering the therapeutic safety and toxicity of metal nanoparticles, the prospects for their use for future clinical applications are being currently reviewed.

An overview of the material science and knowledge of nanomedicine, bioscaffolds, and tissue engineering for tendon restoration

Tendon wounds are a worldwide health issue affecting millions of people annually. Due to the characteristics of tendons, their natural restoration is a complicated and lengthy process. With the advancement of bioengineering, biomaterials, and cell biology, a new science, tissue engineering, has developed. In this field, numerous ways have been offered. As increasingly intricate and natural structures resembling tendons are produced, the results are encouraging. This study highlights the nature of the tendon and the standard cures that have thus far been utilized. Then, a comparison is made between the many tendon tissue engineering methodologies proposed to date, concentrating on the ingredients required to gain the structures that enable appropriate tendon renewal: cells, growth factors, scaffolds, and scaffold formation methods. The analysis of all these factors enables a global understanding of the impact of each component employed in tendon restoration, thereby shedding light on potential future approaches involving the creation of novel combinations of materials, cells, designs, and bioactive molecules for the restoration of a functional tendon.

Updates on Biogenic Metallic and Metal Oxide Nanoparticles: Therapy, Drug Delivery and Cytotoxicity

The ambition to combat the issues affecting the environment and human health triggers the development of biosynthesis that incorporates the production of natural compounds by living organisms via eco-friendly nano assembly. Biosynthesized nanoparticles (NPs) have various pharmaceutical applications, such as tumoricidal, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobials, antiviral, etc. When combined, bio-nanotechnology and drug delivery give rise to the development of various pharmaceutics with site-specific biomedical applications. In this review, we have attempted to summarize in brief the types of renewable biological systems used for the biosynthesis of metallic and metal oxide NPs and the vital contribution of biogenic NPs as pharmaceutics and drug carriers simultaneously. The biosystem used for nano assembly further affects the morphology, size, shape, and structure of the produced nanomaterial. The toxicity of the biogenic NPs, because of their pharmacokinetic behavior in vitro and in vivo, is also discussed, together with some recent achievements towards enhanced biocompatibility, bioavailability, and reduced side effects. Because of the large biodiversity, the potential biomedical application of metal NPs produced via natural extracts in biogenic nanomedicine is yet to be explored.

Advanced treatment strategies in breast cancer: A comprehensive mechanistic review

Breast cancer is a destructive lump type that affects women globally. Despite the availability of multi-directional therapeutic strategies, advanced stages of breast cancer are difficult to treat and impose major healthcare burdens. This situation reinforces the need to identify new potential therapeutic compounds with better clinical features. In this context, different treatment methods were included such as Endocrine therapy, chemotherapy, Radiation therapy, antimicrobial peptide-dependent growth inhibitor, liposome-based drug delivery, antibiotics used as a co-medication, photothermal, immunotherapy, and nano drug delivery systems such as Bombyx mori natural protein sericin and its mediated nanoparticles are promising biomedical agents. They have been tested as an anticancer agent against various malignancies in pre-clinical settings. The biocompatible and restricted breakdown properties of silk sericin and sericin-conjugated nanoparticles made them perfect contenders for a nanoscale drug-delivery system.

Plasmonic nanotechnology for photothermal applications - an evaluation

The application of plasmonic nanoparticles is motivated by the phenomenon of surface plasmon resonance. Owing to the tunability of optothermal properties and enhanced stability, these nanostructures show a wide range of applications in optical sensors, steam generation, water desalination, thermal energy storage, and biomedical applications such as photothermal (PT) therapy. The PT effect, that is, the conversion of absorbed light to heat by these particles, has led to thriving research regarding the utilization of plasmonic nanoparticles for a myriad of applications. The design of conventional nanomaterials for PT conversion has focussed predominantly on the manipulation of photon absorption through bandgap engineering, doping, incorporation, and modification of suitable matrix materials. Plasmonic nanomaterials offer an alternative and attractive approach in this regard, through the flexibility in the excitation of surface plasmons. Specific advantages are the considerable improved bandwidth of the absorption, a higher efficiency of photon absorption, facile tuning, as well as flexibility in the synthesis of plasmonic nanomaterials. This review of plasmonic PT (PPT) research begins with a theoretical discussion on the plasmonic properties of nanoparticles by means of the quasi-static approximation, Mie theory, Gans theory, generic simulations on common plasmonic material morphologies, and the evaluation processes of PT performance. Further, a variety of nanomaterials and material classes that have potential for PPT conversion are elucidated, such as plasmonic metals, bimetals, and metal-metal oxide nanocomposites. A detailed investigation of the essential, but often ignored, concept of thermal, chemical, and aggregation stability of nanoparticles is another part of this review. The challenges that remain, as well as prospective directions and chemistries, regarding nanomaterials for PT conversion are pondered on in the final section of the article, taking into account the specific requirements from different applications.

Apoptotic and antiproliferative effects of silk protein sericin conjugated-AgNO3 nanoparticles in human breast cancer cells

Bombyx mori silk sericin is a globular-like protein that is used as an antioxidant, antibacterial, and antitumor agent. In this current research, we isolated sericin by degumming process and formation of sericin-AgNO₃ NPs confirmed by UV-vis spectra, SEM, EDX, FTIR, and XRD patterns. The sericin and sericin-AgNO₃ NPs mediated changes in human breast cancer cells were determined. The antiproliferative activity of sericin-AgNO₃ NPs was analyzed by MTT dye reduction assay. Alterations at molecular levels were investigated by qRT-PCR, while apoptotic effects were studied by nuclear DNA staining. After 72 h treatment, sericin and sericin-AgNO₃ NPs showed significant antiproliferative effects in MDA-MB-231 (26 %) and MCF-7 (41 %) cells. Expression modification showed prominent stimulation of cell cycle arrest and stress related genes such as cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitors (CDKN1A, CDKN1B), and GADD family genes. RT-PCR results of the GADD family include GADD45A, B, G, 34, 153 and cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitors (CDKN1A, 1B) showed pronounced induction of 3.1 to 19.8-folds in MCF-7 cell line while induction in MDA-MB-231 cell line was 2.5 to 34.3-folds. Nuclear DAPI staining showed significant induction of apoptosis and nuclear fragmentation in MDA-MB-231 cells at a concentration of 1 mg/mL for both sericin and sericin-AgNO₃ NPs. Meanwhile, in case of MCF-7 cells, after treatment with sericin and sericin-AgNO₃ NPs (1 mg/mL), the cells changed into a round shape and lost their original spindle outlook in dose-dependent manners. We concluded that sericin-AgNO₃ NPs have significant antiproliferative, apoptosis, and genetic profiling effects in both breast cancer cell lines at the highest concentration.

Gold Nanoparticles in Triple-Negative Breast Cancer Therapeutics

BACKGROUND

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is the most aggressive type of breast cancer with enhanced metastasis and poor survival. Though chemotherapy, radiotherapy, photothermal therapy (PTT), photodynamic therapy (PDT), and gene delivery are used to treat TNBC, various side effects limit these therapeutics against TNBC. In this review article, we have focused on the mechanism of action of gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) to enhance the efficacy of therapeutics with targeted delivery on TNBC cells.

METHODS

Research data were accumulated from PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar using searching criteria "gold nanoparticles and triple-negative breast cancer" and "gold nanoparticles and cancer". Though we reviewed many old papers, the most cited papers were from the last ten years.

RESULTS

Various studies indicate that AuNPs can enhance bioavailability, site-specific drug delivery, and efficacy of chemotherapy, radiotherapy, PTT, and PDT as well as modulate gene expression. The role of AuNPs in the modulation of TNBC therapeutics through the inhibition of cell proliferation, progression, and metastasis has been proved in vitro and in vivo studies. As these mechanistic actions of AuNPs are most desirable to develop drugs with enhanced therapeutic efficacy against TNBC, it might be a promising approach to apply AuNPs for TNBC therapeutics.

CONCLUSION

This article reviewed the mechanism of action of AuNPs and their application in the enhancement of therapeutics against TNBC. Much more attention is required for studying the role of AuNPs in developing them either as a single or synergistic anticancer agent against TNBC.

Fullerenes for the treatment of cancer: an emerging tool

Cancer is a most common cause of mortality globally. Available medicines possess severe side effects owing to their non-specific targeting. Hence, there is a need of an alternative in the healthcare system that should have high efficacy with the least side effects, also having the ability to achieve site-specific targeting and be reproducible. This is possible with the help of fullerenes. Fullerenes are having the unique physicochemical and photosensitizer properties. This article discusses the synthesis, functionalization, mechanism, various properties, and applications of C60 fullerenes in the treatment of cancer. The review article also addresses the various factors influencing the activity of fullerenes including the environmental conditions, toxicity profile, and future prospective.

Assessment of the Potential Health Risk of Gold Nanoparticles Used in Nanomedicine

Due to unique properties, nanoparticles (NPs) have become a preferred material in biomedicine. The benefits of their use are indisputable, but their safety and potential toxicity are becoming more and more important. Especially, excessive production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) induced by the strong oxidation potential of metal NPs could evoke adverse effects associated with damage to nucleic acids, proteins and lipids. Our study gives a view on the potential cytotoxicity of gold NPs (Au NPs) of different size from the perspective of the redox state of healthy (HEK 293 T) and cancer (A375 and A594) cell lines. These cells were incubated in the presence of two concentrations of Au NPs for 24 h or 72 h and total antioxidant capacity, 8-isoprostane, and protein carbonyl levels were determined. Furthermore, the activity of antioxidant enzymes such as superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase, and catalase was detected in cell lysates. Our results compared to the results of other laboratories are very contradictory. The outcomes also differ between healthy and cancer cell lines. However, there are certainly changes in the activities of antioxidant enzymes, as well as the damage to biological molecules due to increased NP-induced oxidative stress. But the final decision of the effect of Au NPs on the oxidative state of selected cell lines requires further research.

Water-Soluble Silicon Quantum Dots toward Fluorescence-Guided Photothermal Nanotherapy

We report carboxy-terminated silicon quantum dots (SiQDs) that exhibit high solubility in water due to the high molecular coverage of surface monolayers, bright light emission with high photoluminescence quantum yields (PLQYs), long-term stability in the PL property for monitoring cells, less toxicity to the cells, and a high photothermal response. We prepared water-soluble SiQDs by the thermal hydrosilylation of 10-undecenoic acid on their hydrogen-terminated surfaces, provided by the thermal disproportionation of triethoxysilane hydrolyzed at pH 3 and subsequent hydrofluoric etching. The 10-undecanoic acid-functionalized SiQDs (UA:SiQDs) showed long-term stability in hydrophilic solvents including ethanol and water (pH 7). We assess their interaction with live cells by means of cellular uptake, short-term toxicity, and, for the first time, long-term cytotoxicity. Results show that UA:SiQDs are potential candidates for theranostics, with their good optical properties enabling imaging for more than 18 days and a photothermal response having a 25.1% photothermal conversion efficiency together with the direct evidence of cell death by laser irradiation. UA:SiQDs have low cytotoxicity with full viability of up to 400 μg/mL for the short term and a 50% cell viability value after 14 days of incubation at a 50 μg/mL concentration.

Novel zinc-silver nanocages for drug delivery and wound healing: Preparation, characterization and antimicrobial activities

Metal organic framework (MOF)-nanocages (MOF-NCs) in the form of zinc-based nanoparticles (NPs) were synthesized as drug carriers for the purpose of wound healing. The prepared NCs (single and bi-metallic with silver-MOF) were based on zinc and they were loaded with ascorbic acid (vitamin C) as a model drug which accelerates wound healing. The NCs were then investigated by several characterization techniques such as XRD, TEM, FTIR and BET surface area. Furthermore, the release behavior of the loaded ascorbic acid from the developed NCs was measured in phosphate buffer solution (PBS). NCs antibacterial activity was tested against strain of gram-positive bacteria (Staphylococcus aureus ATCC- 29213, Streptococcus pyogenes ATCC-19615 and Bacillus subtilis ATCC-6633), gram-negative bacteria strain (Pseudomonas aeruginosaATCC-27853and Escherichia coli ATCC-25922) and fungi (Candida albicans ATCC-10231).The physicochemical features of the NCs were confirmed by the results obtained from XRD and FTIR measurements. The particle size of the NCs was confirmed to be in the range of 30-50 nm. Prolonged drug release that was combined with impressive antibacterial activities, and good wound healing rates were also recognized for the zinc based NCs in comparison to commonly used Ag NPs. It is concluded that the current NCs are potentially suitable for wound healing and drug delivery applications.

Tendon Tissue Repair in Prospective of Drug Delivery, Regenerative Medicines, and Innovative Bioscaffolds

The natural healing capacity of the tendon tissue is limited due to the hypovascular and cellular nature of this tissue. So far, several conventional approaches have been tested for tendon repair to accelerate the healing process, but all these approaches have their own advantages and limitations. Regenerative medicine and tissue engineering are interdisciplinary fields that aspire to develop novel medical devices, innovative bioscaffold, and nanomedicine, by combining different cell sources, biodegradable materials, immune modulators, and nanoparticles for tendon tissue repair. Different studies supported the idea that bioscaffolds can provide an alternative for tendon augmentation with an enormous therapeutic potentiality. However, available data are lacking to allow definitive conclusion on the use of bioscaffolds for tendon regeneration and repairing. In this review, we provide an overview of the current basic understanding and material science in the field of bioscaffolds, nanomedicine, and tissue engineering for tendon repair.

Iron oxide magnetic nanoparticles based low-field MR thermometry

This paper reports on a highly accurate approach of magnetic resonance (MR) thermometry using iron oxide magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) as temperature sensors. An empirical model for the description of the temperature dependent R ₂ relaxation rate is proposed by taking into account the temperature sensitivity of the MNP magnetization. The temperature sensitivity of the MNP magnetization (η) and the temperature sensitivity of the R ₂ relaxation rate (κ) are simulated with the proposed empirical models to investigate their dependence on the magnetic field and the particle size. Simulation results show the existence of optimal magnetic fields H_oη and H_oκ that maximize the temperature sensitivities η and κ. Furthermore, simulations and experiments demonstrate that the optimal magnetic field H_oη (H_oκ ) decreases with increasing the particle size. Experiments on temperature dependent R ₂ relaxation rate are performed at different magnetic fields for MNP samples with different iron concentrations. Experimental results show that the proposed MR thermometry using MNPs as temperature sensors allows a temperature estimation accuracy of about 0.05 °C. We believe that the achieved approach of highly accurate MR thermometry is of great interest and significance to biomedicine and biology.

Metal nanoparticles fabricated by green chemistry using natural extracts: biosynthesis, mechanisms, and applications

Nanoparticles (NPs) are new inspiring clinical targets that have emerged from persistent efforts with unique properties and diverse applications. However, the main methods currently utilized in their production are not environmentally friendly. With the aim of promoting a green approach for the synthesis of NPs, this review describes eco-friendly methods for the preparation of biogenic NPs and the known mechanisms for their biosynthesis. Natural plant extracts contain many different secondary metabolites and biomolecules, including flavonoids, alkaloids, terpenoids, phenolic compounds and enzymes. Secondary metabolites can enable the reduction of metal ions to NPs in eco-friendly one-step synthetic processes. Moreover, the green synthesis of NPs using plant extracts often obviates the need for stabilizing and capping agents and yields biologically active shape- and size-dependent products. Herein, we review the formation of metallic NPs induced by natural extracts and list the plant extracts used in the synthesis of NPs. In addition, the use of bacterial and fungal extracts in the synthesis of NPs is highlighted, and the parameters that influence the rate of particle production, size, and morphology are discussed. Finally, the importance and uniqueness of NP-based products are illustrated, and their commercial applications in various fields are briefly featured.

Characterization and Relaxation Properties of a Series of Monodispersed Magnetic Nanoparticles

Magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles are relatively advanced nanomaterials, and are widely used in biology, physics and medicine, especially as contrast agents for magnetic resonance imaging. Characterization of the properties of magnetic nanoparticles plays an important role in the application of magnetic particles. As a contrast agent, the relaxation rate directly affects image enhancement. We characterized a series of monodispersed magnetic nanoparticles using different methods and measured their relaxation rates using a 0.47 T low-field Nuclear Magnetic Resonance instrument. Generally speaking, the properties of magnetic nanoparticles are closely related to their particle sizes; however, neither longitudinal relaxation rate r1 nor transverse relaxation rate r2 changes monotonously with the particle size d. Therefore, size can affect the magnetism of magnetic nanoparticles, but it is not the only factor. Then, we defined the relaxation rates ri′ (i = 1 or 2) using the induced magnetization of magnetic nanoparticles, and found that the correlation relationship between r1′ relaxation rate and r1 relaxation rate is slightly worse, with a correlation coefficient of R2 = 0.8939, while the correlation relationship between r2′ relaxation rate and r2 relaxation rate is very obvious, with a correlation coefficient of R2 = 0.9983. The main reason is that r2 relaxation rate is related to the magnetic field inhomogeneity, produced by magnetic nanoparticles; however r1 relaxation rate is mainly a result of the direct interaction of hydrogen nucleus in water molecules and the metal ions in magnetic nanoparticles to shorten the T1 relaxation time, so it is not directly related to magnetic field inhomogeneity.

The Impact of Metallic Nanoparticles on Stem Cell Proliferation and Differentiation

Nanotechnology has a wide range of medical and industrial applications. The impact of metallic nanoparticles (NPs) on the proliferation and differentiation of normal, cancer, and stem cells is well-studied. The preparation of NPs, along with their physicochemical properties, is related to their biological function. Interestingly, various mechanisms are implicated in metallic NP-induced cellular proliferation and differentiation, such as modulation of signaling pathways, generation of reactive oxygen species, and regulation of various transcription factors. In this review, we will shed light on the biomedical application of metallic NPs and the interaction between NPs and the cellular components. The in vitro and in vivo influence of metallic NPs on stem cell differentiation and proliferation, as well as the mechanisms behind potential toxicity, will be explored. A better understanding of the limitations related to the application of metallic NPs on stem cell proliferation and differentiation will afford clues for optimal design and preparation of metallic NPs for the modulation of stem cell functions and for clinical application in regenerative medicine.

High Antifungal Activity against Candida Species of Monometallic and Bimetallic Nanoparticles Synthesized in Nanoreactors

Among all novel challenges nowadays worldwide, infectious disease is probably one of the most important. It is well-known that common treatments used include high doses of antibiotics, which are very invasive therapies for patients. These treatments are more intensive when the infection is related to multidrug resistant microorganisms. In this sense, in this work we report the use of reverse micelles to form less than 5 nm gold, silver, and gold-silver nanoparticles (NPs) with biological activity against five opportunistic Candida strains responsible of several diseases in human beings. As a result, we evaluate the interface properties and droplet-droplet interactions of micelles founding high fluidity in the polar head of the surfactant, necessary to form a flexible interaction channel in the "dimmer" micelle-micelle. In this condition, we form monodispersed, highly reactive NPs with sizes less than 5 nm with high antifungal activity against C. parapsilosis, C. Krusei, C. glabrata, C. guillermondii, and C. albicans, with minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC₅₀) less than 0.7 ppm in all cases, the lowest reported to the best of our knowledge. These are very promising results to develop alternative therapies to treat fungal diseases in humans, animals, and plants, or to coat conventional surfaces in surgery rooms.

Versatile Nanosystem-Based Cancer Theranostics: Design Inspiration and Predetermined Routing

The relevance of personalized medicine, aimed at a more individualized drug therapy, has inspired research into nano-based concerted diagnosis and therapeutics (theranostics). As the intention is to "kill two birds with one stone", scientists have already described the emerging concept as a treasured tailor for the future of cancer therapy, wherein the main idea is to design "smart" nanosystems to concurrently discharge both therapeutic and diagnostic roles. These nanosystems are expected to offer a relatively clearer view of the ingenious cellular trafficking pathway, in-situ diagnosis, and therapeutic efficacy. We herein present a detailed review of versatile nanosystems, with prominent examples of recently developed intelligent delivery strategies which have gained attention in the field of theranostics. These nanotheranostics include various mechanisms programmed in novel platforms to enable predetermined delivery of cargo to specific sites, as well as techniques to overcome the notable challenges involved in the efficacy of theranostics.

Mini-review: fluorescence imaging in cancer cells using dye-doped nanoparticles

Fluorescence imaging has gained increased attention over the past two decades as a viable means to detect a variety of cancers.

Multimodal targeted high relaxivity thermosensitive liposome for in vivo imaging

Liposomes are spherical, self-closed structures formed by lipid bilayers that can encapsulate drugs and/or imaging agents in their hydrophilic core or within their membrane moiety, making them suitable delivery vehicles. We have synthesized a new liposome containing gadolinium-DOTA lipid bilayer, as a targeting multimodal molecular imaging agent for magnetic resonance and optical imaging. We showed that this liposome has a much higher molar relaxivities r1 and r2 compared to a more conventional liposome containing gadolinium-DTPA-BSA lipid. By incorporating both gadolinium and rhodamine in the lipid bilayer as well as biotin on its surface, we used this agent for multimodal imaging and targeting of tumors through the strong biotin-streptavidin interaction. Since this new liposome is thermosensitive, it can be used for ultrasound-mediated drug delivery at specific sites, such as tumors, and can be guided by magnetic resonance imaging.

Surface-Engineered Contact Lens as an Advanced Theranostic Platform for Modulation and Detection of Viral Infection

We have demonstrated an entirely new concept of a wearable theranostic device in the form of a contact lens (theranostic lens) with a dual-functional hybrid surface to modulate and detect a pathogenic attack, using a the corneal HSV serotype-1 (HSV-1) model. The theranostic lenses were constructed using a facile layer-by-layer surface engineering technique, keeping the theranostic lenses with good surface wettability, optically transparency, and nontoxic toward human corneal epithelial cells. The theranostic lenses were used to capture and concentrate inflammatory cytokines such as interleukin-1α (IL-1α), which is upregulated during HSV-1 reactivation, for sensitive, noninvasive diagnostics. The theranostic lens also incorporated an antiviral coating to serve as a first line of defense to protect patients against disease. Our strategy tackles major problems in tear diagnostics that are mainly associated with the sampling of a relatively small volume of fluid and the low concentration of biomarkers. The theranostic lenses show effective anti-HSV-1 activity and good analytical performance for the detection of IL-1α, with a limit of detection of 1.43 pg mL(-1) and a wide linear range covering the clinically relevant region. This work offers a new paradigm for "wearable" noninvasive healthcare devices combining "diagnosis" and "protection" against disease, while supporting patient compliance. We believe that this approach holds immense promise as a next-generation point-of-care and decentralized diagnostic/theranostic platform for a range of biomarkers.

Breast Cancer: Conventional Diagnosis and Treatment Modalities and Recent Patents and Technologies

Breast cancer is the most prevalent cancer among women worldwide. However, increased survival is due to the dramatic advances in the screening methods, early diagnosis, and breakthroughs in treatments. Over the course of the last decade, many acquisitions have taken place in this critical field of research in the pharmaceutical industry. Advances in molecular biology and pharmacology aided in better understanding of breast cancer, enabling the design of smarter therapeutics able to target cancer and respond to its microenvironment efficiently. Patents and research papers investigating diagnosis and treatment strategies for breast cancer using novel technologies have been surveyed for the past 15 years. Various nanocarriers have been introduced to improve the therapeutic efficacy of anticancer drugs, including liposomes, polymeric micelles, quantum dots, nanoparticles, and dendrimers. This review provides an overview of breast cancer, conventional therapy, novel technologies in the management of breast cancer, and rational approaches for targeting breast cancer.

HIGHLIGHTS

Breast cancer is the most common cancer in women worldwide. However, survival rates vary widely, optimistically heading toward a positive trend. Increased survival is due to the drastic shift in the screening methods, early diagnosis, and breakthroughs in treatments.Different strategies of breast cancer classification and staging have evolved over the years. Intrinsic (molecular) subtyping is essential in clinical trials and well understanding of the disease.Many novel technologies are being developed to detect distant metastases and recurrent disease as well as to assess response to breast cancer management.Intensive research efforts are actively ongoing to take novel breast cancer therapeutics to potential clinical application.Most of the recent research papers and patents discuss one of the following strategies: the development of new drug entities that specifically target the breast tumor cells; tailor designing a novel carrier system that can multitask and multifunction as a drug carrier, targeting vehicle and even as a diagnostic tool, direct conjugation of a therapeutic drug moiety with a targeting moiety, diagnostic moiety or pharmacokinetics altering moiety; or the use of innovative nontraditional approaches such as genetic engineering, stem cells, or vaccinations.

Folate receptor-targeted multimodality imaging of ovarian cancer in a novel syngeneic mouse model

A new transplantable ovarian tumor model is presented using a novel folate receptor (FR) positive, murine ovarian cancer cell line that emulates the human disease and induces widespread intraperitoneal (i.p.) tumors in immunocompetent mice within 4–8 weeks of implantation. Tumor development was monitored using a new positron emission tomography (PET) FR-targeting reporter with PET/computerized tomography (PET/CT) and fluorescence molecular tomography (FMT) using a commercial FR-targeting reporter. Conventional structural magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) was also performed. Adult female C57BL/6 mice were injected i.p. with 6 × 10⁶ MKP-L FR+ cells. Imaging was performed weekly beginning 2 weeks after tumor induction. The albumin-binding, FR-targeting ligand cm09 was radiolabeled with the positron emitter ⁶⁸Ga and used to image the tumors with a small animal PET/CT. The FR-reporter FolateRSense 680 (PerkinElmer) was used for FMT and flow cytometry. Preclinical MRI (7 T) without FR-targeting was compared with the PET and FMT molecular imaging. Tumors were visible by all three imaging modalities. PET/CT had the highest imaging sensitivity at 3–3.5 h postadministration (mean %IA/g mean > 6) and visualized tumors earlier than the other two modalities with lower kidney uptake (mean %IA/g mean < 17) than previously reported FR-targeting agents in late stage disease. FMT showed relatively low FR-targeted agent in the bladder and kidneys, but yielded the lowest anatomical image resolution. MRI produced the highest resolution images, but it was difficult to distinguish tumors from abdominal organs during early progression since a FR-targeting MRI reporter was not used. Nevertheless, there was good correlation of imaging biomarkers between the three modalities. Tumors in the mouse ovarian cancer model could be detected using FR-targeted imaging as early as 2 weeks post i.p. injection of tumor cells. An imaging protocol should combine one or more of the modalities, e.g., PET/CT or PET/MRI for optimal tumor detection and delineation from surrounding tissues.

Application of fullerenes in nanomedicine: an update

Fullerenes are carbon spheres presently being pursued globally for a wide range of applications in nanomedicine. These molecules have unique electronic properties that make them attractive candidates for diagnostic, therapeutic and theranostic applications. Herein, the latest research is discussed on developing fullerene-based therapeutics as antioxidants for inflammatory diseases, their potential as antiviral/bacterial agents, utility as a drug delivery device and the promise of endohedral fullerenes as new MRI contrast agents. The recent discovery that certain fullerene derivatives can stabilize immune effector cells to prevent or inhibit the release of proinflammatory mediators makes them potential candidates for several diseases such as asthma, arthritis and multiple sclerosis. Gadolinium-containing endohedral fullerenes are being pursued as diagnostic MRI contrast agents for several diseases. Finally, a new class of fullerene-based theranostics has been developed, which combine therapeutic and diagnostic capabilities to specifically detect and kill cancer cells.

Gd-based macromolecules and nanoparticles as magnetic resonance contrast agents for molecular imaging

As we move towards an era of personalized medicine, molecular imaging contrast agents are likely to see an increasing presence in routine clinical practice. Magnetic resonance (MR) imaging has garnered particular interest as a platform for molecular imaging applications due its ability to monitor anatomical changes concomitant with physiologic and molecular changes. One promising new direction in the development of MR contrast agents involves the labeling and/or loading of nanoparticles with gadolinium (Gd). These nanoplatforms are capable of carrying large payloads of Gd, thus providing the requisite sensitivity to detect molecular signatures within disease pathologies. In this review, we discuss some of the progress that has recently been made in the development of Gd-based macromolecules and nanoparticles and outline some of the physical and chemical properties that will be important to incorporate into the next generation of contrast agents, including high Gd chelate stability, high "relaxivity per particle" and "relaxivity density", and biodegradability.

Modified Gadonanotubes as a promising novel MRI contrasting agent

Background and purpose of the study

Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are emerging drug and imaging carrier systems which show significant versatility. One of the extraordinary characteristics of CNTs as Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) contrasting agent is the extremely large proton relaxivities when loaded with gadolinium ion (Gd_n³⁺) clusters.

Methods

In this study equated Gd_n³⁺ clusters were loaded in the sidewall defects of oxidized multiwalled (MW) CNTs. The amount of loaded gadolinium ion into the MWCNTs was quantified by inductively coupled plasma (ICP) method. To improve water solubility and biocompatibility of the system, the complexes were functionalized using diamine-terminated oligomeric poly (ethylene glycol) via a thermal reaction method.

Results

Gd_n³⁺ loaded PEGylated oxidized CNTs (Gd_n³⁺@CNTs-PEG) is freely soluble in water and stable in phosphate buffer saline having particle size of about 200 nm. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) images clearly showed formation of PEGylated CNTs. MRI analysis showed that the prepared solution represents 10% more signal intensity even in half concentration of Gd³⁺ in comparison with commerciality available contrasting agent Magnevist®. In addition hydrophilic layer of PEG at the surface of CNTs could prepare stealth nanoparticles to escape RES.

Conclusion

It was shown that Gd_n³⁺@CNTs-PEG was capable to accumulate in tumors through enhanced permeability and retention effect. Moreover this system has a potential for early detection of diseases or tumors at the initial stages.

Gd(III)-DOTA-modified sonosensitive liposomes for ultrasound-triggered release and MR imaging

Ultrasound-sensitive (sonosensitive) liposomes for tumor targeting have been studied in order to increase the antitumor efficacy of drugs and decrease the associated severe side effects. Liposomal contrast agents having Gd(III) are known as a nano-contrast agent system for the efficient and selective delivery of contrast agents into pathological sites. The objective of this study was to prepare Gd(III)-DOTA-modified sonosensitive liposomes (GdSL), which could deliver a model drug, doxorubicin (DOX), to a specific site and, at the same time, be capable of magnetic resonance (MR) imaging. The GdSL was prepared using synthesized Gd(III)-DOTA-1,2-distearoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine lipid. Sonosensitivity of GdSL to 20-kHz ultrasound induced 33% to 40% of DOX release. The relaxivities (r1) of GdSL were 6.6 to 7.8 mM-1 s-1, which were higher than that of MR-bester®. Intracellular uptake properties of GdSL were evaluated according to the intensity of ultrasound. Intracellular uptake of DOX for ultrasound-triggered GdSL was higher than that for non-ultrasound-triggered GdSL. The results of our study suggest that the paramagnetic and sonosensitive liposomes, GdSL, may provide a versatile platform for molecular imaging and targeted drug delivery.

Nanoformulations for molecular MRI

Nanoscale contrast agents have shown the ability to increase the detection sensitivity of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) by several orders of magnitude, endowing this traditionally macroscopic modality with the ability to observe unique molecular signatures. Herein, we describe three types of nanoparticulate contrast agents: iron oxide nanoparticles, gadolinium-based nanoparticles, and bio-essential manganese, cobalt, nickel, and copper ion-containing nanoformulations. Some of these agents have been approved for clinical use, but more are still under development for medical imaging. The advantages and disadvantages of each nanoformulation, in terms of intrinsic magnetism, ease of synthesis, biodistribution, etc. are discussed.

Applications of functionalized fullerenes in tumor theranostics

Functionalized fullerenes with specific physicochemical properties have been developed for cancer diagnosis and therapy. Notably, metallofullerene is a new class of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) contrast-enhancing agent, and may have promising applications for clinical diagnosis. Polyhydroxylated and carboxyl fullerenes have been applied to photoacoustic imaging. Moreover, in recent years, functionalized fullerenes have shown potential in tumor therapies, such as photodynamic therapy, photothermal treatment, radiotherapy and chemotherapeutics. Their antitumor effects may be associated with the modulation of oxidative stress, anti-angiogenesis, and immunostimulatory activity. While various types of novel nanoparticle agents have been exploited in tumor theranostics, their distribution, metabolism and toxicity in organisms have also been a source of concern among researchers. The present review summarizes the potential of fullerenes as tumor theranostics agents and their possible underlying mechanisms are discussed.