Sirolimus and mycophenolate as combination prophylaxis in corneal transplant recipients at high rejection risk

Nanoparticle-hydrogel composite as dual-drug delivery system for the potential application of corneal graft rejection

Immune rejection remains the major cause of corneal graft failure. Immunosuppressants (such as rapamycin; RAPA) adjunctive to antibiotics (such as levofloxacin hydrochloride; Lev) are a clinical mainstay after corneal grafts but suffer from poor ocular bioavailability associated with severe side effects. In this study, we fabricated a Lev@RAPA micelle loaded cationic peptide-based hydrogel (NapFFKK) as a dual-drug delivery system by integrating RAPA micelles with Lev into a cationic NapFFKK hydrogel to potentially reduced the risk of corneal graft rejection. The properties of the resulting hydrogels were characterized using transmission electronmicroscopy and rheometer. Lev@RAPA micelles loaded NapFFKK hydrogel provided sustained in vitro drug release without compromising their inherent pharmacological activities. Topical instillation of Lev@RAPA micelles loaded NapFFKK hydrogel resulted in the great ocular tolerance and extended precorneal retention over 60 min, thus significantly enhancing the ocular bioavailability of both Lev and RAPA. Overall, such dual-drug delivery system might be a promising formulation for the suppression of corneal graft failure.

Management and prevention of corneal graft rejection

The management of an episode of corneal graft rejection (CGR) is primarily by corticosteroids. Immunomodulators are useful for long-term immunosuppression and in dealing with cases of high-risk (HR) corneal grafts. The classical signs of CGR following penetrating keratoplasty (PKP) include rejection line, anterior chamber (AC) reaction, and graft edema. However, these signs may be absent or subtle in cases of endothelial keratoplasty (EK). Prevention of an episode of graft rejection is of utmost importance as it can reduce the need for donor cornea significantly. In our previous article (IJO_2866_22), we had discussed about the immunopathogenesis of CGR. In this review article, we aim to discuss the various clinical aspects and management of CGR.

Rapamycin antagonizes angiogenesis and lymphangiogenesis through myeloid-derived suppressor cells in corneal transplantation

Rapamycin is an immunosuppressive drug that is widely used in the postsurgery management of transplantation. To date, the mechanism by which rapamycin reduces posttransplant neovascularization has not been fully understood. Given the original avascularity and immune privilege of the cornea, corneal transplantation is considered as an ideal model to investigate neovascularization and its effects on allograft rejection. Previously, we found that myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSC) prolong corneal allograft survival through suppression of angiogenesis and lymphangiogenesis. Here, we show that depletion of MDSC abolished rapamycin-mediated suppression of neovascularization and elongation of corneal allograft survival. RNA-sequencing analysis revealed that rapamycin dramatically enhanced the expression of arginase 1 (Arg1). Furthermore, an Arg1 inhibitor also completely abolished the rapamycin-mediated beneficial effects after corneal transplantation. Taken together, these findings indicate that MDSC and elevated Arg1 activity are essential for the immunosuppressive and antiangiogenic functions of rapamycin.

Why Are Corneal Specialists Resistant to Treating Patients Who Have Severe Ocular Surface Disease With Limbal Stem Cell Deficiency?

PURPOSE

To highlight the paucity of surgeons performing ocular surface stem cell transplantation with systemic immunosuppression (OSSTx with SI) for limbal stem cell deficiency (LSCD) patients, suboptimal treatments for LSCD, and obstacles to adoption.

METHODS

A review of the Eye Bank Association of America annual reports and the authors' case volume for OSSTx with SI was performed. Examination of the published literature on corneal surgeries, especially for LSCD, was completed. These findings were combined with our clinical observations to develop this editorial.

RESULTS

Despite techniques and protocols for OSSTx with SI published more than 30 years ago for the treatment of severe bilateral LSCD, only a small number of corneal specialists have adopted these techniques. There is a paucity of attention to this population of patients, with minimal publications to advance this area of our field. We are too often referred patients with LSCD and severe ocular surface disease that have had suboptimal treatments such as penetrating keratoplasties or primary keratoprostheses. Hesitancy for adopting OSSTx with SI is likely due to a lack of exposure to these procedures during training and fear of systemic immunosuppression. Corneal surgeons are likely unaware of the safety of systemic immunosuppression with appropriate monitoring especially when comanaging these patients with an organ transplant specialist.

CONCLUSION

There is a large unmet need for the treatment of corneal blindness secondary to conjunctival and LSCD. For the vast majority of patients, OSSTx should be the first surgical choice to treat these eyes. We hope major ophthalmology centers will meet this need by building programs, and groups of corneal surgeons should collaborate to create regional centers to make this treatment more accessible to help this population.

Characterization and Evaluation of Rapamycin-Loaded Nano-Micelle Ophthalmic Solution

Rapamycin-loaded nano-micelle ophthalmic solution (RAPA-NM) offers a promising application for preventing corneal allograft rejection; however, RAPA-NM has not yet been fully characterized. This study aimed to evaluate the physicochemical properties, biocompatibility, and underlying mechanism of RAPA-NM in inhibiting corneal allograft rejection. An optimized RAPA-NM was successfully prepared using a polyvinyl caprolactam-polyvinyl acetate-polyethylene glycol (PVCL-PVA-PEG) graft copolymer as the excipient at a PVCL-PVA-PEG/RAPA weight ratio of 18:1. This formulation exhibited high encapsulation efficiency (99.25 ± 0.55%), small micelle size (64.42 ± 1.18 nm), uniform size distribution (polydispersity index = 0.076 ± 0.016), and a zeta potential of 1.67 ± 0.93 mV. The storage stability test showed that RAPA-NM could be stored steadily for 12 weeks. RAPA-NM also displayed satisfactory cytocompatibility and high membrane permeability. Moreover, topical administration of RAPA-NM could effectively prevent corneal allograft rejection. Mechanistically, a transcriptomic analysis revealed that several immune- and inflammation-related Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathways were significantly enriched in the downregulated genes in the RAPA-NM-treated allografts compared with the rejected allogenic corneal grafts. Taken together, these findings highlight the potential of RAPA-NM in treating corneal allograft rejection and other ocular inflammatory diseases.

Secondary Endothelial Keratoplasty-A Narrative Review of the Outcomes of Secondary Corneal Endothelial Allografts

BACKGROUND

We review the literature on the efficacy and safety outcomes of secondary Descemet stripping endothelial keratoplasty (DSEK) and Descemet membrane endothelial keratoplasty (DMEK).

METHODS

Literature search of English-written publications up to September 27, 2020 in PubMed database, using the terms "endothelial keratoplasty" in combination with keywords "secondary" or "repeat." In addition, we manually searched the references of the primary articles.

RESULTS

Twenty-seven studies (n = 651 eyes) were retained and reviewed, including 10 studies on repeat DSEK, 8 studies on repeat DMEK, 6 studies of DMEK following DSEK, and 3 studies of DSEK after failed DMEK. All studies reported significant improvement in visual acuity after secondary endothelial keratoplasty (EK). Twelve studies compared visual outcomes between primary and secondary EK, reporting conflicting findings. Sixteen studies reported endothelial cell loss rates after secondary EK, and only 1 study reported significantly increased endothelial cell loss rates compared with primary EK. Allograft rejection episodes occurred in 1.8% of eyes (range, 0%-50%). Six studies compared complication rates between primary and secondary EK eyes, and only 1 study found a higher median number of complications. However, 2 studies reported higher regraft failure rates compared with primary EK eyes.

CONCLUSIONS

Secondary EK is surgically feasible and renders significant visual improvement after failed primary EK, although it is not clear whether visual outcomes and allograft survival are comparable with primary EK, raising the question of whether secondary EK eyes are "low risk" as primary EK eyes. Further larger, prospective studies are encouraged to obtain additional quality data on secondary corneal endothelial allotransplantation.

Systemic Immunosuppression in Cornea and Ocular Surface Disorders: A Ready Reckoner for Ophthalmologists

Purpose: Many diseases of the cornea and ocular surface are manifestations of an underlying autoimmune process and require systemic immunosuppression for their management. These cases often present to a general ophthalmologist before being referred to an ocular immunologist or rheumatologist. However, the patients do need to be followed by the ophthalmologist to assess disease progression or for management of ocular co-morbidities and for taking care of ocular complications of the disease. Undeniably, there is a certain hesitance to promptly initiate them on systemic therapy because the literature regarding the indications, dosages, and side effects of this group of drugs is vast and dispersed.The aim of this review is to provide a source of ready reference for the general ophthalmologist as well as trainees and residents, on systemic immunosuppression for corneal and ocular surface disease. Methods: This review included 153 studies which were published as randomized controlled trials, systematic reviews, or as nonrandomized comparative studies (cohort or case-control series) on the topic of systemic immunosuppression in cornea and ocular surface disorders.Results: This review provides a concise summary of both the types of drugs and the common indications where they would be indicated, along with treatment and monitoring algorithms for each specific disease condition. The most used group of drugs are corticosteroids, which have significant side effects, particularly when administered systemically or for longer periods of time. To overcome this, steroid-sparing immunosuppressants are recommended. The four main classes of immunosuppressants used today are antimetabolites, T-cell inhibitors, alkylating agents and biologic agents. This review details the use of these drugs in ocular surface inflammation, including the dosing schedule, side effects and monitoring in allergic conjunctivitis, mucous membrane pemphigoid, peripheral ulcerative keratitis, immunological rejection against corneal allografts, anterior scleritis and aqueous deficiency dry eyes. Conclusions: This review provides an uncluttered and wholesome understanding of systemic immunosuppression in cornea and ocular surface diseases, with the hope that this will serve as a ready reckoner and help bridge the gap between ophthalmology and rheumatology for the betterment of our patients.

Corneal xenotransplantation: Where are we standing?

The search for alternatives to allotransplants is driven by the shortage of corneal donors and is demanding because of the limitations of the alternatives. Indeed, current progress in genetically engineered (GE) pigs, the introduction of gene-editing technology by clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)-Cas9, and advanced immunosuppressants have made xenotransplantation a possible option for a human trial. Porcine corneal xenotransplantation is considered applicable because the eye is regarded as an immune-privileged site. Furthermore, recent non-human primate studies have shown long-term survival of porcine xenotransplants in keratoplasty. Herein, corneal immune privilege is briefly introduced, and xenogeneic reactions are compared with allogeneic reactions in corneal transplantation. This review describes the current knowledge on special issues of xenotransplantation, xenogeneic rejection mechanisms, current immunosuppressive regimens of corneal xenotransplantation, preclinical efficacy and safety data of corneal xenotransplantation, and updates of the regulatory framework to conduct a clinical trial on corneal xenotransplantation. We also discuss barriers that might prevent xenotransplantation from becoming common practice, such as ethical dilemmas, public concerns on xenotransplantation, and the possible risk of xenozoonosis. Given that the legal definition of decellularized porcine cornea (DPC) lies somewhere between a medical device and a xenotransplant, the preclinical efficacy and clinical trial data using DPC are included. The review finally provides perspectives on the current standpoint of corneal xenotransplantation in the fields of regenerative medicine.

Differential effects of primary disease and corneal vascularisation on corneal transplant rejection and survival

Aims

To investigate the relative risk of pretransplant corneal vascularisation on rate of rejection and graft failure within 5 years of surgery when categorised by indication for transplantation.

We analysed all adults recorded in the UK transplant registry who had a first cornea transplant for keratoconus (KC), pseudophakic bullous keratopathy (PBK) or previous infection (viral/bacterial/fungal/protozoan) between 1999 and 2017. We analysed the number of quadrants of the recipient cornea vascularised before transplant and type of vascularisation, the interval post-transplant to rejection, if any, and the outcome at 5 years post-transplant. Risk factors for rejection and transplant failure were modelled by multivariable risk-adjusted Cox regression.

Results

Corneal vascularisation was recorded in 10%, 25% and 67% of patients with KC, PBK and infection, respectively. Individuals with PBK had an increased hazard of transplant rejection only when there were more than two quadrants of vascularisation (HR 1.5, p=0.004) when either superficial and/or deep vascularisation was present (HR 1.3 and 1.4, respectively, p=0.004). Individuals who had a transplant for previous infection had an increased hazard of rejection with four quadrants of vascularisation (HR 1.6, p=0.003). There was no risk-adjusted increase in transplant failure associated with vascularisation in any group. There was weak evidence of reduction in risk of rejection and/or failure associated with lamellar compared with penetrating transplantation in KC and PBK in vascularised recipient corneas.

Conclusion

Vascularisation is a risk factor for corneal allograft rejection within 5 years. The indication for transplantation has a clinically significant effect on the magnitude of this risk.

Literature review and suggested protocol for prevention and treatment of corneal graft rejection

Effective prophylaxis and treatment of corneal graft rejection are essential to improve outcomes in corneal transplantation. To date, there has been no standardized protocol published that outlines the optimal prophylactic and therapeutic approaches and, furthermore, the published controlled trials on this subject are limited. Likewise, no study has addressed how the level of antigen exposure varies between different types of keratoplasties. The aim of this paper is to provide a simple evidence-based protocol for the prevention and treatment of corneal graft rejection.

Immune reactions after modern lamellar (DALK, DSAEK, DMEK) versus conventional penetrating corneal transplantation

In the past decade, novel lamellar keratoplasty techniques such as Deep Anterior Lamellar Keratoplasty (DALK) for anterior keratoplasty and Descemet stripping automated endothelial keratoplasty (DSAEK)/Descemet membrane endothelial keratoplasty (DMEK) for posterior keratoplasty have been developed. DALK eliminates the possibility of endothelial allograft rejection, which is the main reason for graft failure after penetrating keratoplasty (PK). Compared to PK, the risk of endothelial graft rejection is significantly reduced after DSAEK/DMEK. Thus, with modern lamellar techniques, the clinical problem of endothelial graft rejection seems to be nearly solved in the low-risk situation. However, even with lamellar grafts there are epithelial, subepithelial and stromal immune reactions in DALK and endothelial immune reactions in DSAEK/DMEK, and not all keratoplasties can be performed in a lamellar fashion. Therefore, endothelial graft rejection in PK is still highly relevant, especially in the "high-risk" setting, where the cornea's (lymph)angiogenic and immune privilege is lost due to severe inflammation and pathological neovascularization. For these eyes, currently available treatment options are still unsatisfactory. In this review, we will describe currently used keratoplasty techniques, namely PK, DALK, DSAEK, and DMEK. We will summarize their indications, provide surgical descriptions, and comment on their complications and outcomes. Furthermore, we will give an overview on corneal transplant immunology. A specific focus will be placed on endothelial graft rejection and we will report on its incidence, clinical presentation, and current/future treatment and prevention options. Finally, we will speculate how the field of keratoplasty and prevention of corneal allograft rejection will develop in the future.

Rapamycin Nano-Micelle Ophthalmic Solution Reduces Corneal Allograft Rejection by Potentiating Myeloid-Derived Suppressor Cells' Function

Allograft rejection is the major cause of corneal allograft failure. Rapamycin (RAPA) has been reported as an effective and novel immunosuppressive agent for patients undergoing corneal transplantation. However, its high water insolubility and low bioavailability have strongly constrained its clinical application. In this study, we successfully developed a RAPA nano-micelle ophthalmic solution and found that corneal allograft survival in recipients treated with RAPA nano-micelle ophthalmic solution was significantly prolonged for more than 2 months, with less inflammatory infiltration, decreased production of pro-inflammatory factors, and elevated recruitment of myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs). MDSCs from mice treated with RAPA nano-micelle ophthalmic solution could significantly inhibit the proliferation of CD4⁺T cells through increased expressions of inducible nitric oxidase (iNOS) and arginase-1 (Arg-1). The activity blockade of Arg-1 and iNOS pharmacologically reversed their immunosuppressive ability. Moreover, the effects of RAPA were antagonized by the administration of anti-Gr-1 antibody or by inhibiting the activity of iNOS pharmacologically. In addition, RAPA nano-micelle also effectively alleviated allograft rejection in high-risk rabbit penetrating keratoplasty (PKP) models with corneal vascularization. Collectively, our results demonstrate that RAPA nano-micelle ophthalmic solution could improve the immunosuppressive activity of MDSCs through elevated expression of Arg-1 and iNOS, which highlights the possible therapeutic applications of RAPA against corneal allograft rejection.

Update on the Management of High-Risk Penetrating Keratoplasty

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

In this article, we review the indications and latest management of high-risk penetrating keratoplasty.

RECENT FINDINGS

Despite the immune-privilege status of the cornea, immune-mediated graft rejection still remains the leading cause of corneal graft failure. This is particularly a problem in the high-risk graft recipients, namely patients with previous graft failure due to rejection and those with inflamed and vascularized corneal beds. A number of strategies including both local and systemic immunosuppression are currently used to increase the success rate of high-risk corneal grafts. Moreover, in cases of limbal stem cell deficiency, limbal stem cells transplantation is employed.

SUMMARY

Corticosteroids are still the top medication for prevention and treatment in cases of corneal graft rejection. Single and combined administration of immunosuppressive agents e.g. tacrolimus, cyclosporine and mycophenolate are promising adjunctive therapies for prolonging graft survival. In the future, cellular and molecular therapies should allow us to achieve immunologic tolerance even in high-risk grafts.

Systemic Immunomodulatory Strategies in High-risk Corneal Transplantation

The cornea is the most commonly transplanted tissue in the body. Although corneal grafts generally have high success rates, transplantation onto inflamed and vascularized host beds, or so-called high-risk corneal transplantation, has a high rate of graft rejection. The management of this high-risk corneal transplantation is challenging and involves numerous measures. One of the key measures to prevent graft rejection in these cases is the use of systemic immunosuppressive agents. In this article, we will review the systemic immunosuppressive agents most commonly used for high-risk corneal transplantation, which include corticosteroids, cysclosporine A, tacrolimus, mycophenolate mofetil, and rapamycin. Benefits, risks, and published data on the use of these medications for high-risk corneal transplantation will be detailed. We will also summarize novel immunoregulatory approaches that may be used to prevent graft rejection in high-risk corneal transplantation.

The Influence of Donor and Recipient Gender Incompatibility on Corneal Transplant Rejection and Failure

In vascularized organ transplants, gender mismatches have higher rates of immunological rejection. We investigated the influence of gender incompatibility, including H-Y incompatibility, on corneal transplant graft rejection and failure. Patients were included who had undergone a first corneal transplant for keratoconus (KC), Fuchs endothelial dystrophy (FED), pseudophakic bullous keratopathy (PBK), infection and other indications. A Cox regression model was fitted for each indication to determine factors affecting graft failure and rejection at 5 years. The impact of gender, including H-Y, matching was analyzed after accounting for other factors, including known risk factors. Of 18 171 patients, 4314 had undergone a transplant for FED, 4783 for KC, 3669 for PBK, 1903 for infection and 3502 for other disorders. H-Y mismatched (male [M]→female [F]) corneas were at greater risk of graft failure or rejection. For FED, F→F were 40% less likely to fail (p < 0.0001) and 30% less likely to reject (p = 0.01); M→M were 20% less likely to fail (p = 0.04) and 30% less likely to reject (p = 0.01). For KC, M→M matched corneas were 30% less likely to fail (p = 0.05) and 20% less likely to reject (p = 0.01) compared with H-Y mismatches. H-Y antigen mismatched (M→F) patients were at greater risk of rejection or graft failure.

Management of high-risk corneal transplantation

The cornea is the most commonly transplanted tissue in medicine. The main cause of corneal graft failure is allograft rejection. The incidence of graft rejection depends on the presence of high-risk characteristics, most notably corneal neovascularization. Although corneal grafting has high success rates in the absence of these risk factors, high-risk keratoplasty is associated with low success rates because of a high incidence of immune-mediated graft rejection. To improve the survival of high-risk corneal transplantation, various preoperative, intraoperative, and postoperative measures can be considered; however, the key step in the management of these grafts is the long-term use of local and/or systemic immunosuppressive agents. Although a number of immunosuppressive agents have been used for this purpose, the results vary significantly across different studies. This is partly due to the lack of an optimized method for their use, as well as the lack of a precise stratification of the degree of risk in each individual patient. New targeted biologic treatments, as well as tolerance-inducing methods, show promising horizons in the management of high-risk corneal transplantation in near future.

Systemic Immunosuppression in High-Risk Penetrating Keratoplasty: A Systematic Review

Cornea transplantation has a high success rate and typically only requires topical immunomodulation. However, in high-risk cases, systemic immunosuppression can be used. We conducted a systematic review on the efficacy and side effects of systemic immunosuppression for high-risk cornea transplantation. The study population was 18 years old or older with a high-risk transplant (two or more clock hours of cornea vascularization or a previous failed graft or a graft needed because of herpes simplex keratitis). A comprehensive search strategy was performed with the help of an information specialist and content experts from ophthalmology. All study designs were accepted for assessment. Level 1 and level 2 screening was performed by two reviewers followed by data abstraction. Forest plots were created whenever possible to synthesize treatment effects. Quality assessment was done with a Downs and Blacks score. From 1,150 articles, 29 were ultimately used for data abstraction. The odds ratios (ORs) for clear graft survival in cyclosporine and controls were 2.43 (95% CI: 1.00 - 5.88) and 3.64 (95% CI: 1.48 - 8.91) for rejection free episodes. Mycophenolate mofetil (MMF) significantly improved the rejection free graft survival rates at 1 year (OR: 4.05, 95% CI: 1.83 - 8.96). The overall results suggested that both systemic cyclosporine and MMF improved 1-year rejection free graft survival in high-risk keratoplasty. Cyclosporine also significantly improved clear graft survival rates at 1 year; however, there were insufficient data to analyze the same in the MMF group. Higher quality studies are needed to understand this issue better.

[Risk factors, clinical presentations, prevention, and treatment of corneal graft rejection]

Corneal transplantation is the most common and successful type of allotransplantation surgery. Post-transplant immune response in keratoplasty is less pronounced than that in other transplantation procedures, which is accounted for by anatomical features of the cornea and, also, its low antigenic potential and active immunosuppression. However, the immune privilege of the cornea can be violated by neovascularization, inflammation, or trauma. Patients who require keratoplasty to restore their sight and whose immune privilege is disturbed, fall into a high-risk group and are likely to demonstrate tissue incompatibility and non-transparent engraftment. Two approaches exist as to how graft rejection can be prevented. One of them involves induction of donor-specific tolerance, the other - non-specific suppression of the recipient's immune response. To avoid tissue incompatibility, measures can be taken to restore the immune privilege of the cornea as well as to induce antigen-specific tolerance, which is considered a promising, thought yet experimental, area of modern transplantology. In clinical practice, one pays most attention to improvement of non-specific immune suppression methods based on interfering in the metabolism of immunocompetent cells. Thus, timely prescriptions and proper immunosuppressive tactics with account to possible risk factors determine the outcome in high-risk patients undergoing corneal transplantation surgery.

Adverse effects of low-dose systemic cyclosporine therapy in high-risk penetrating keratoplasty

PURPOSE

The purpose of this study was to investigate the adverse effects of low-dose oral cyclosporine (CsA) therapy following high-risk corneal transplantation.

METHODS

The medical records from 88 subjects who had undergone high-risk penetrating keratoplasties and had been administered oral CsA were retrospectively analyzed. High risk was defined as a history of graft rejection, three or more quadrants of vascularization, or the presence or history of intraocular inflammation. An initial CsA dose of 3-5 mg/kg per day was given for 3-7 days, followed by 2.5-3.5 mg/kg per day for approximately 1 month. The concentration of CsA was maintained at the target trough level of 120-150 ng/ml for at least 6 months or until serious complications developed. The relationship between the cumulative dose and duration of CsA administration and the adverse systemic effects, including the frequency of herpes keratitis, was evaluated. The incidence of herpes keratitis in the study subjects was compared with the incidence in 185 patients who had not received CsA therapy following penetrating keratoplasty.

RESULTS

The mean survival time of the grafts was 33.6 months. Adverse effects occurred in 81.8 % of subjects. Hypertension, elevated liver enzyme levels, elevated serum creatinine level, and decreased absolute neutrophil count (ANC) were observed in 14.8, 6.8, 5.7, and 5.7 % of subjects, respectively. Simvastatin-induced rhabdomyolysis also developed in one case. Some patients exhibited minor complications, with gastrointestinal problems and hypertrichosis recorded in 5.7 and 3.4 % of subjects, respectively. Hypertension and hepatotoxicity most frequently occurred after 4 to 8 weeks of medication, while ANC decrease and nephrotoxicity generally developed after 24 weeks of treatment, with incidence related to the cumulative dose. Herpes keratitis occurred more frequently (31.8 %) in the CsA-treated subjects than in subjects that did not receive CsA therapy (p = 0.005). Most of the adverse effects were reversed after discontinuation of CsA therapy.

CONCLUSION

The results of this study suggest that low-dose oral CsA therapy may induce various adverse effects, the most common of which are herpes keratitis and hypertension.

[Immunosuppressives to prevent rejection reactions after allogeneic corneal transplantation]

In order to prevent rejection of an allogeneic corneal transplant after perforating (high risk) keratoplasty, active agents from different classes of pharmacological substances are used, as with solid organ transplantation. In addition to glucocorticoids, antiproliferative agents, small molecule inhibitors and antibodies, those belonging to the group of macrolides with their many derivatives represent an interesting class of substances in this context. As a supplement to cyclosporin A (CSA) the most successful macrolide in transplantation medicine, animal experiments are currently being carried out to test newer macrolide derivatives, such as sanglifehrin A (SFA). This overview describes the classes of drugs and modes of action of currently administered standard medications in the clinical routine and new developments are presented.

Three-year corneal graft survival rate in high-risk cases treated with subconjunctival and topical bevacizumab

PURPOSE

To evaluate the effect of combined subconjunctival and topical bevacizumab treatment on corneal graft survival rate in high-risk eyes.

METHODS

Prospective, consecutive, interventional case series. Fifty eyes of 50 high-risk patients scheduled for penetrating keratoplasty (PK) were included in the study; two Stevens-Johnson syndromes (SJS), five corneal combustions due to chemical burn, seven post-traumatic vascularised leucomas, 11 post-infectious vascularised leucomas, 19 rejected grafts and six corneal ulcers. Additional surgeries such as autologous limbal stem cell and/or amniotic membrane transplantation were performed together with PK in ten cases. All eyes received subconjunctival injection of 0.5 ml bevacizumab (25 mg/ml) after PK. Eyes with more than two quadrants of neovascularisation (NV) received bevacizumab drops (25 mg/ml) postoperatively for up to 12 weeks. Donor grafts were followed up for best-corrected visual acuity, graft clarity, change in NV, endothelial cell density loss (ECD), and adverse events. Mean follow-up was 36.5 months (range 32-61).

RESULTS

Best-corrected visual acuity increase was statistically significant in 82 % (41/50) of eyes 3 years after PK (paired t-test, p = 0.02). Thirty-five (70 %) high-risk grafts remained clear throughout the 3-year follow-up period. Decrease of corneal NV was observed in 84 % (42/50) of eyes treated with bevacizumab. ECD changed from preoperative 2,864 ± 301 down to 1,905 ± 187 cells/mm(2) at 3 postoperative years. A non-healing epithelial defect was recorded in one patient with SJS after 12 weeks of topical bevacizumab.

CONCLUSION

Combined subconjunctival and topical bevacizumab treatment may improve corneal graft survival rate in the majority of high-risk cases.

Topical 0.03% tacrolimus preventing rejection in high-risk corneal transplantation: a cohort study

BACKGROUND/AIMS

The present study aims to identify the rate of rejection and safety of 0.03% tacrolimus eye drops associated with 1% prednisolone in a topical formulation, comparing them with the use of 1% prednisolone eye drops alone in patients with high-risk corneal transplantation.

METHODS

Retrospective cohort study with 72 patients (72 eyes) who underwent more than one penetrating keratoplasty (PK) in the same eye or had severe chemical burn between 2004 and 2011 in the department of cornea and external disease of the Clinical Hospital of Porto Alegre, Brazil. We compared the records of 36 patients that performed unilateral PK and received only 1% prednisolone eye drops between May 2004 and July 2008, with 36 patients that received 0.03% tacrolimus eye drops in addition to 1% prednisolone between August 2008 and August 2011.

RESULTS

The mean follow-up of the group exposed to tacrolimus was 23.1 months and 24.0 in the prednisolone alone group. The demographics, intraoperative and initial indications for first PK were similar between groups, as well as the number of regrafts performed. Intraocular pressure (IOP) was not statistically different among groups. Regarding irreversible rejections, topical tacrolimus showed greater protection: only seven grafts (19.4%) lost transparency against 16 (44.4%) in the 1% prednisolone alone group (p <0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

Topical 0.03% tacrolimus was effective in preventing irreversible rejection in patients with high-risk corneal transplantation without increasing IOP.

Gene therapy in corneal transplantation

Corneal transplantation is the most commonly performed organ transplantation. Immune privilege of the cornea is widely recognized, partly because of the relatively favorable outcome of corneal grafts. The first-time recipient of corneal allografts in an avascular, low-risk setting can expect a 90% success rate without systemic immunosuppressive agents and histocompatibility matching. However, immunologic rejection remains the major cause of graft failure, particularly in patients with a high risk for rejection. Corticosteroids remain the first-line therapy for the prevention and treatment of immune rejection. However, current pharmacological measures are limited in their side-effect profiles, repeated application, lack of targeted response, and short duration of action. Experimental ocular gene therapy may thus present new horizons in immunomodulation. From efficient viral vectors to sustainable alternative splicing, we discuss the progress of gene therapy in promoting graft survival and postulate further avenues for gene-mediated prevention of allogeneic graft rejection.

Corneal Allograft Rejection: Immunopathogenesis to Therapeutics

Corneal transplantation is among the most successful solid organ transplants. However, despite low rejection rates of grafts in the ‘low-risk’ setting, rejection can be as high as 70% when grafted into ‘high-risk’ recipient beds. Under normal homeostatic conditions, the avascular cornea provides a unique environment that facilitates immune and angiogenic privilege. An imbalance in pro-inflammatory, angiogenic and lymphangiogenic mediators leads to a breakdown in corneal immune privilege with a consequent host response against the donor graft. Recent developments in lamellar and endothelial keratoplasties have reduced the rates of graft rejection even more, while providing improved visual outcomes. The corneal layer against which an immune response is initiated, largely determines reversibility of the acute episode. While epithelial and stromal graft rejection may be treated with topical corticosteroids with higher success, acute endothelial rejection mandates a more aggressive approach to therapy due to the lack of regenerative capacity of this layer. However, current immunosuppressive regimens come with the caveat of ocular and systemic side effects, making prolonged aggressive treatment undesirable. With the advent of biologics, efficacious therapies with a superior side effect profile are on the horizon. In our review we discuss the mediators of ocular immune privilege, the roles of cellular and molecular immune players in graft rejection, with a focus on human leukocyte antigen and antigen presenting cells. Furthermore, we discuss the clinical risk factors for graft rejection and compare rates of rejection in lamellar and endothelial keratoplasties to traditional penetrating keratoplasty. Lastly, we present the current and upcoming measures of therapeutic strategies to manage and treat graft rejection, including an overview of biologics and small molecule therapy.

Corneal transplantation

Corneal transplantation or keratoplasty has developed rapidly in the past 10 years. Penetrating keratoplasty, a procedure consisting of full-thickness replacement of the cornea, has been the dominant procedure for more than half a century, and successfully caters to most causes of corneal blindness. The adoption by specialist surgeons of newer forms of lamellar transplantation surgery, which selectively replace only diseased layers of the cornea, has been a fundamental change in recent years. Deep anterior lamellar keratoplasty is replacing penetrating keratoplasty for disorders affecting the corneal stromal layers, while eliminating the risk of endothelial rejection. Endothelial keratoplasty, which selectively replaces the corneal endothelium in patients with endothelial disease, has resulted in more rapid and predictable visual outcomes. Other emerging therapies are ocular surface reconstruction and artificial cornea (keratoprosthesis) surgery, which have become more widely available because of rapid advances in these techniques. Collectively, these advances have resulted in improved outcomes, and have expanded the number of cases of corneal blindness, which can now be treated successfully. Femtosecond-laser-assisted surgery, bioengineered corneas, and medical treatment for endothelial disease are also likely to play a part in the future.

Immune privilege of corneal allografts

Corneal transplantation has been performed successfully for over 100 years. Normally, HLA typing and systemic immunosuppressive drugs are not utilized, yet 90% of corneal allografts survive. In rodents, corneal allografts representing maximal histoincompatibility enjoy >50% survival even without immunosuppressive drugs. By contrast, other categories of transplants are invariably rejected in such donor/host combinations. The acceptance of corneal allografts compared to other categories of allografts is called immune privilege. The cornea expresses factors that contribute to immune privilege by preventing the induction and expression of immune responses to histocompatibility antigens on the corneal allograft. Among these are soluble and cell membrane molecules that block immune effector elements and also apoptosis of T lymphocytes. However, some conditions rob the corneal allograft of its immune privilege and promote rejection, which remains the leading cause of corneal allograft failure. Recent studies have examined new strategies for restoring immune privilege to such high-risk hosts.