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Wang Y, Liao J, Chen H, Tao L, Liu J. Association of perceived discrimination with the risk of depression among US older adults: A prospective population-based cohort study. Heliyon 2024; 10:e23843. [PMID: 38226276 PMCID: PMC10788503 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e23843] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2023] [Revised: 11/22/2023] [Accepted: 12/13/2023] [Indexed: 01/17/2024] Open
Abstract
Aims Association between perceived discrimination and depression has been demonstrated in some sources of discrimination, such as age, sex, and race. However, the effects of perceived discrimination both in any domain and each domain on development of depression are still unclear. We aimed to estimate the association of any and each domain of perceived discrimination with the risk of depression among US older adults. Methods We did a population-based cohort study using eight waves (from 2006 to 2020) of data from the Health and Retirement Study (HRS), a nationally representative study of US older adults aged 51 years and above. Perceived discrimination was measured by the shortened 5-item version of Williams' discrimination scale, including five domains (less courtesy, service setting, not smart, threatened or harassed, and medical setting). Depressive symptoms were assessed with shortened 8-item version of the Center for Epidemiological Depression scale (8-item CES-D). Cox proportional hazards models were used to estimate the crude and adjusted hazards ratio (HRs) and their 95 % confidence intervals (CIs) between perceived discrimination and risk of depression, after controlling for potential confounders. Results A total of 18502 participants were included in our final analyses. 42.8 % of them had any perceived discrimination at baseline, and the most prevalent perceived discrimination was feeling less courtesy, which was observed in 5893 people (31.6 %). During a median of 9.8 years follow-up, 44.7 % of participants developed depression. The risk of depression was 46 % (adjusted HR: 1.46, 95 % CI: 1.39-1.52) higher among people with perceived discrimination than those without. The associations between perceived discrimination in each domain and risk of depression were all prominent. Conclusions Both any and each domain of perceived discrimination were associated with an increased risk of depression. Considering the high prevalence of perceived discrimination and the following poor health outcomes, our findings suggested the integrated measures of providing public education and diversified communication to reduce discrimination, as well as accessible emotional supports to prevent depression are urgently needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yaping Wang
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Peking University, No.38, Xueyuan Road, Haidian District, Beijing, 100191, China
| | - Jiaojiao Liao
- Research Center of Clinical Epidemiology, Peking University Third Hospital, No. 49, Huayuan North Road, Haidian District, Beijing, 100191, China
| | - Hongguang Chen
- Peking University Sixth Hospital, Peking University Institute of Mental Health, NHC Key Laboratory of Mental Health (Peking University), No.35, Xueyuan Road, Haidian District, Beijing, 100191, China
- National Clinical Research Center for Mental Disorders (Peking University Sixth Hospital), No.35, Xueyuan Road, Haidian District, Beijing, 100191, China
| | - Liyuan Tao
- Department of Epidemiology, Harvard TH Chan School of Public Health, 677 Huntington Avenue, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Jue Liu
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Peking University, No.38, Xueyuan Road, Haidian District, Beijing, 100191, China
- Institute for Global Health and Development, Peking University, No.5, Yiheyuan Road, Haidian District, Beijing, 100871, China
- Department of Global Health and Population, Harvard TH Chan School of Public Health, 677 Huntington Avenue, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
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