The effect of ethanol on reversal learning in honey bees (Apis mellifera anatolica): Response inhibition in a social insect model

Preliminary Analysis of Genetic Markers for Functional Ethanol Tolerance in Honey Bees (Apis mellifera) Using a Free-Flying Paradigm

Honey bees are a commonly used species for alcohol research due to their genome being fully sequenced, their behavioral changes following consumption, and their preference for alcohol. The purpose of this article is to provide a preliminary examination of the genetic expression of heat shock protein 70 (HSP70) and big potassium ion channel protein (BKP) in honey bees following the consumption of either 0%, 2.5%, 5%, or 10% ethanol (EtOH) solutions. The foraging behaviors of the bees were observed and recorded through their return and drinking times. There were significant differences in the return and drinking times between some of the groups. The bees in the 10% condition took significantly longer to return compared to the other groups. Additionally, the bees in the 5% group spent significantly more time drinking compared to the bees in the control (0%) group. There were no significant differences in HSP70 or BKP between the different ethanol groups. Cumulatively, these findings suggest that, while bees may exhibit behavioral differences, the differences in gene expression may not be observed at the transcriptional level.

The Effects of Ethanol and Acetic acid on Behaviour of Extranidal Workers of the Narrow-Headed Ant Formica exsecta (Hymenoptera, Formicidae) during a Field Experiment

Ethanol addiction belongs to the most important problems encountered in the domain of human mental health. The research on the behavioural effects of exposure to/consumption of ethanol are investigated largely with the help of animal models that also include insects, mainly fruit flies and honeybees. The effects of ethanol on ant behaviour remain, however, little known. In the present field study, we investigated the behaviour of workers of the narrow-headed ant (Formica exsecta) displayed in the vicinity of cotton pads soaked in water or in water solutions of ethanol or acetic acid during 5 min tests (n = 30 tests in each group). Both ethanol and acetic acid induced significant modifications of ant locomotion, exploratory behaviour, self-grooming behaviour, and aggressive social behaviour. We confirmed that acetic acid is aversive for the ants, but ethanol enhances their exploratory behaviour. We also found out that field studies may document more types of responses to experimental compounds than laboratory ones, as the tested animals may also escape from aversive substances. Our findings documented a wide spectrum of behavioural effects of exposure to ethanol and acetic acid in a highly social animal species and broadened the general knowledge about behavioural responses to these compounds encountered in animals.

Honey bee flights near hover under ethanol-exposure show changes in body and wing kinematics

Flying social insects can provide model systems for in-flight interactions in computationally-constrained aerial robot swarms. The social interactions in flying insects may be chemically modulated and quantified via recent measurement advancements able to simultaneously make precise measurements of insect wing and body motions. This paper presents the first in-flight quantitative measurements of ethanol-exposed honey bee body and wing kinematics in archival literature. Four high-speed cameras (9000 frames/sec) were used to record the wing and body motions of flying insects (Apis mellifera) and automated analysis was used to extract 9000 frame/sec measurements of honey bees' wing and body motions through data association, hull reconstruction, and segmentation. The kinematic changes induced by exposure to incremental ethanol concentrations from 0% to 5% were studied using statistical analysis tools. Analysis considered trial-wise mean and maximum values and gross wingstroke parameters, and tested deviations for statistical significance using Welch's t-test and Cohen's d test. The results indicate a decrease in maximal heading and pitch rates of the body, and that roll rate is affected at high concentrations (5%). The wingstroke effects include a stroke frequency decrease and stroke amplitude increase for 2.5% or greater concentrations, gradual stroke inclination angle increase up to 2.5% concentration, and a more planar wingstroke with increasing concentration according to bulk wingstroke analysis. These ethanol-exposure effects provide a basis to separate ethanol exposure and neighbor effects in chemically mediated interaction studies.

Drug effect and addiction research with insects - From Drosophila to collective reward in honeybees

Animals and humans share similar reactions to the effects of addictive substances, including those of their brain networks to drugs. Our review focuses on simple invertebrate models, particularly the honeybee (Apis mellifera), and on the effects of drugs on bee behaviour and brain functions. The drug effects in bees are very similar to those described in humans. Furthermore, the honeybee community is a superorganism in which many collective functions outperform the simple sum of individual functions. The distribution of reward functions in this superorganism is unique - although sublimated at the individual level, community reward functions are of higher quality. This phenomenon of collective reward may be extrapolated to other animal species living in close and strictly organised societies, i.e. humans. The relationship between sociality and reward, based on use of similar parts of the neural network (social decision-making network in mammals, mushroom body in bees), suggests a functional continuum of reward and sociality in animals.

Discontinued alcohol consumption elicits withdrawal symptoms in honeybees

The honeybee continues to be developed as a model species in many research areas, including studies related to the effects of alcohol. Here, we investigate whether workers display one of the key features of alcoholism, namely withdrawal symptoms. We show that workers fed for a prolonged time on food spiked with ethanol, after discontinuation of access to such food, exhibited a marked increase in the consumption of ethanol and a slight increase in mortality. We additionally show that withdrawal symptoms do not include an increase in appetitiveness of ethanol diluted in water. Our results demonstrate that workers can develop alcohol dependence, which might be especially important in the natural setting of repeated exposure to ethanol in floral nectar and for their potential as a model of alcohol addiction.

Habituation of the Light-Startle Response of Orange Head Cockroaches (Eublaberus posticus): Effects of Acclimation, Stimulus Duration, Presence of Food, and Intertrial Interval

The purpose of this paper is to establish the orange head cockroach (Eublaberus posticus) as a useful insect subject for research in comparative psychology by investigating habituation of the light-startle response (LSR). While one goal of comparative psychology is to compare the behavior of a diversity of species, many taxa, including cockroaches, are grossly underrepresented. Our work serves to improve this deficit by investigating habituation learning in the orange head cockroach in four experiments. In our first experiment, we found that LSR, and habituation of LSR, occurs to both lights being turned on and lights being turned off. In our second experiment, we found that the duration of a light did not affect response, and that spontaneous recovery of LSR occurs after 24 h intervals. In our third experiment, we found that the presence of food inhibited LSR. In our final experiment, we found that the rate of LSR habituation decreased as intertrial interval increased, in a manner predicted by established principles of habituation. Our work lays a strong foundation for future research on the behavior of orange head cockroaches as well as learning in cockroaches in general. We hope that our findings help establish cockroaches as practical insect subjects for research in comparative psychology and related fields such as behavior analysis and behavioral ecology.

Acetone application for administration of bioactive substances has no negative effects on longevity, fitness, and sexual communication in a parasitic wasp

Administration of defined amounts of bioactive substances is a perseverative problem in physiological studies on insects. Apart from feeding and injection, topical application of solutions of the chemicals is most commonly used for this purpose. The solvents used should be non-toxic and have least possible effects on the studied parameters. Acetone is widely used for administration of chemical substances to insects, but possible side-effects of acetone application on fitness and behavioral parameters have been rarely investigated. Here we study the effects of acetone application (207 nl) on fitness and sexual communication in the parasitic wasp Nasonia giraulti Darling. Application of acetone had neither negative effects on longevity nor on offspring number and offspring sex ratio of treated wasps. Treatment of females hampered courtship and mating of N. giraulti couples neither directly after application nor one day after. Male sex pheromone titers were not influenced by acetone treatment. Three application examples demonstrate that topical acetone application is capable of bringing active amounts of insect hormones, neuromodulators, and biosynthetic precursors even in tiny insects. We advocate the use of acetone as a convenient, conservative, and broadly applicable vehicle for studying the effects of bioactive substances in insects.

Abramson C. Olfactory Learning in the Stingless Bee Melipona eburnea Friese (Apidae: Meliponini)

Olfactory learning and floral scents are co-adaptive traits in the plant–pollinator relationship. However, how scent relates to cognition and learning in the diverse group of Neotropical stingless bees is largely unknown. Here we evaluated the ability of Melipona eburnea to be conditioned to scent using the proboscis extension reflex (PER) protocol. Stingless bees did not show PER while harnessed but were able to be PER conditioned to scent when free-to-move in a mini-cage (fmPER). We evaluated the effect of: 1) unconditioned stimulus (US) reward, and 2) previous scent–reward associations on olfactory learning performance. When using unscented-US, PER-responses were low on day 1, but using scented-US reward the olfactory PER-response increased on day 1. On day 2 PER performance greatly increased in bees that previously had experienced the same odor and reward combination, while bees that experienced a different odor on day 2 showed poor olfactory learning. Bees showed higher olfactory PER conditioning to guava than to mango odor. The effect of the unconditioned stimulus reward was not a significant factor in the model on day 2. This indicates that olfactory learning performance can increase via either taste receptors or accumulated experience with the same odor. Our results have application in agriculture and pollination ecology.

Acute Low Alcohol Disrupts Hippocampus-Striatum Neural Correlate of Learning Strategy by Inhibition of PKA/CREB Pathway in Rats

The hippocampus and striatum guide place-strategy and response-strategy learning, respectively, and they have dissociable roles in memory systems, which could compensate in case of temporary or permanent damage. Although acute alcohol (AA) treatment had been shown to have adverse effects on hippocampal function, whether it causes the functional compensation and the underlying mechanisms is unknown. In this study, rats treated with a low dose of AA avoided a hippocampus-dependent spatial strategy, instead preferring a striatum-dependent response strategy. Consistently, the learning-induced increase in hippocampal, but not striatal, pCREB was rendered less pronounced due to diminished activity of pPKA, but not pERK or pCaMKII. As rats approached the turn-decision area, Sp-cAMP, a PKA activator, was found to mitigate the inhibitory effect of AA on intra- and cross-structure synchronized neuronal oscillations, and rescue response-strategy bias and spatial learning deficits. Our study provides strong evidence of the critical link between neural couplings and strategy selection. Moreover, the PKA/CREB-signaling pathway is involved in the suppressive effect of AA on neural correlates of place-learning strategy. The novel important evidence provided here shows the functional couplings between the hippocampus and striatum in spatial learning processing and suggests possible avenues for therapeutic intervention.

Appetitive reversal learning differences of two honey bee subspecies with different foraging behaviors

We aimed to examine mechanistically the observed foraging differences across two honey bee, Apis mellifera, subspecies using the proboscis extension response assay. Specifically, we compared differences in appetitive reversal learning ability between honey bee subspecies: Apis mellifera caucasica (Pollman), and Apis mellifera syriaca (Skorikov) in a "common garden" apiary. It was hypothesized that specific learning differences could explain previously observed foraging behavior differences of these subspecies: A.m. caucasica switches between different flower color morphs in response to reward variability, and A.m. syriaca does not switch. We suggest that flower constancy allows reduced exposure by minimizing search and handling time, whereas plasticity is important when maximizing harvest in preparation for long winter is at a premium. In the initial or Acquisition phase of the test we examined specifically discrimination learning, where bees were trained to respond to a paired conditioned stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus and not to respond to a second conditioned stimulus that is not followed by an unconditioned stimulus. We found no significant differences among the subspecies in the Acquisition phase in appetitive learning. During the second, Reversal phase of the experiment, where flexibility in association was tested, the paired and unpaired conditioned stimuli were reversed. During the Reversal phase A.m. syriaca showed a reduced ability to learn the reverse association in the appetitive learning task. This observation is consistent with the hypothesis that A.m. syriaca foragers cannot change the foraging choice because of lack of flexibility in appetitive associations under changing contingencies. Interestingly, both subspecies continued responding to the previously rewarded conditioned stimulus in the reversal phase. We discuss potential ecological correlates and molecular underpinnings of these differences in learning across the two subspecies. In addition, in a supplemental experiment we demonstrated that these differences in appetitive reversal learning do not occur in other learning contexts.

Honeybees show adaptive reactions to ethanol exposure

The honeybee is being developed as a simple invertebrate model for alcohol-related studies. To date, several effects of ethanol consumption have been demonstrated in honeybees, but the tolerance effect, one of the hallmarks of alcohol overuse, has never been shown. Here, we confirm our hypothesis that the response to ethanol (in terms of motor impairment) is lower in bees that have previously experienced intoxication than in bees encountering ethanol for the first time, indicating that the chronic tolerance effect occurs in honeybees. Furthermore, we investigated the basis of this effect and found that it likely results from conditioned compensatory responses to cues associated with ethanol delivery. Our findings significantly improve our understanding of the suitability of honeybees as models for alcoholism-related research and underline the first and foremost function of all conditioned reactions – their adaptive value.

Failure to Find Ethanol-Induced Conditioned Taste Aversion in Honey Bees (Apis mellifera L.)

BACKGROUND

Conditioned taste aversion (CTA) learning is a highly specialized form of conditioning found across taxa that leads to avoidance of an initially neutral stimulus, such as taste or odor, that is associated with, but is not the cause of, a detrimental health condition. This study examines if honey bees (Apis mellifera L.) develop ethanol (EtOH)-induced CTA.

METHODS

Restrained bees were first administered a sucrose solution that was cinnamon scented, lavender scented, or unscented, and contained either 0, 2.5, 5, 10, or 20% EtOH. Then, 30 minutes later, we used a proboscis extension response (PER) conditioning procedure where the bees were taught to associate either cinnamon odor, lavender odor, or an air-puff with repeated sucrose feedings. For some bees, the odor of the previously consumed EtOH solution was the same as the odor associated with sucrose in the conditioning procedure. If bees are able to learn EtOH-induced CTA, they should show an immediate low level of response to odors previously associated with EtOH.

RESULTS

We found that bees did not develop CTA despite the substantial inhibitory and aversive effects EtOH has on behavior. Instead, bees receiving a conditioning odor that was previously associated with EtOH showed an immediate high level of response. While this demonstrates bees are capable of one-trial learning common to CTA experiments, this high level of response is the opposite of what would occur if the bees developed a CTA. Responding on subsequent trials also showed a general inhibitory effect of EtOH. Finally, we found that consumption of cinnamon extract reduced the effects of EtOH.

CONCLUSIONS

The honey bees' lack of learned avoidance to EtOH mirrors that seen in human alcoholism. These findings demonstrate the usefulness of honey bees as an insect model for EtOH consumption.

Different response of acetylcholinesterases in salt- and detergent-soluble fractions of honeybee haemolymph, head and thorax after exposure to diazinon

Organophosphate pesticide diazinon is a specific inhibitor of acetylcholinesterase (AChE), which is a common neurotoxicity biomarker in environmental studies. In honeybees, AChE exists in two forms having different physiological roles, one existing as a soluble form and the other as membrane-bound. In most studies AChE activity has been analysed without paying considerable attention to different forms of AChE. In this study, we exposed honeybees Apis mellifera carnica for 10days to diazinon via oral exposure and analysed the total AChE activities in salt soluble (SS) and detergent soluble (DS) fractions. We assumed that SS fraction would preferentially contain the soluble AChE, but the DS fraction would contain only membrane AChE. On the contrary, our results showed that SS and DS fractions both contain soluble and membrane AChE and the latter has considerably higher activity. Despite this we obtained a differential response of AChE activity in SS and DS fractions when exposed to diazinon. The head/thorax AChE activity in DS fraction decreased, while the head/thorax AChE activity in SS fraction increased at sublethal concentrations. The AChE activity in honeybee hemolymph shown here for the first time is a salt soluble enzyme. Its activity remained unaltered after diazinon treatment. In conclusion, we provide evidence that varying results regarding AChE activity alterations upon stressor exposure are obtained when extracted through different procedures. In further environmental studies with honeybees this differential response of AChE activity should be given considerable attention because this affects the outcome of ecotoxicity study.

An assessment of horse (Equus ferus caballus) responding on fixed interval schedules of reinforcement: An individual analysis

We assessed different measures of temporal control of horse (N=16) responding on fixed interval schedules of reinforcement and a peak procedure. Subjects were trained to insert their heads into a response hoop to break an infrared beam in order to receive horse treats from an automatic feeder. We analyzed cumulative response records, binned response levels, quarter life, latency to first response, breakpoint, and inter-response patterns of the fixed interval trials. To analyze the peak procedure trials, we performed a series of bin analyses. To avoid potential pitfalls associated with aggregate analyses, we performed individual trial and subject analyses using an ordinal analysis within Observation Oriented Modeling. Most subjects produced clear indications that responding came under temporal control of the fixed interval schedules for most of our investigated measures, and some subjects' response levels peaked at half of the peak trial intervals. We provide the first quantitative evidence of equine timing performances using protocols based on fixed interval schedules of reinforcement.

From means and variances to persons and patterns

A novel approach for conceptualizing and analyzing data from psychological studies is presented and discussed. This approach is centered on model building in an effort to explicate the structures and processes believed to generate a set of observations. These models therefore go beyond the variable-based, path models in use today which are limiting with regard to the types of inferences psychologists can draw from their research. In terms of analysis, the newer approach replaces traditional aggregate statistics such as means, variances, and covariances with methods of pattern detection and analysis. While these methods are person-centered and do not require parametric assumptions, they are both demanding and rigorous. They also provide psychologists with the information needed to draw the primary inference they often wish to make from their research; namely, the inference to best explanation.