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Del Buono E, Nurra N, Sartor RM, Battuello M, Favaro L, Berti G, Griglione A, Trossi A, Avolio R, Abete MC, Squadrone S. Trace and rare earth elements in phytoplankton from the Tyrrhenian Sea (Italy). ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AND ASSESSMENT 2024; 196:399. [PMID: 38532156 DOI: 10.1007/s10661-024-12552-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2023] [Accepted: 03/16/2024] [Indexed: 03/28/2024]
Abstract
Plankton plays a very crucial role in bioaccumulation and transfer of metals in the marine food web and represents a suitable bioindicator of the occurrence of trace and rare earth elements in the ecosystem. Trace elements and REEs were analyzed by ICP-MS in phytoplankton samples from the northwestern Mediterranean Sea. Metal concentrations in phytoplankton were found strongly influenced by seasons and depth of collection (- 30 m, - 50 m). Principal component analysis (PCA) has shown that Al, As, Cr, Cu, Ga, and Sn concentrations were related to summer and autumn in samples collected at 30 m depth, while Fe, Mn, Ni, V, and Zn levels related strongly with summer and spring at 50 m depth. Fe, Al, and Zn were the most represented elements in all samples (mean values respectively in the ranges 4.2-8.2, 9.6-13, and 1.0-4.4 mg kg-1) according to their widespread presence in the environment and in the earth crust. Principal component analysis (PCA) performed on REEs showed that mostly all lanthanides' concentrations strongly correlate with summer and autumn seasons (- 30 m depth); the highest ∑REE concentration (75 µg kg-1) was found in winter. Phytoplankton REE normalized profile was comparable to those of other marine biota collected in the same area according to the suitability of lanthanides as geological tracers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ermelinda Del Buono
- Department of Life Sciences and Systems Biology, University of Torino, via Accademia Albertina 13, 10123, Turin, Italy
| | - Nicola Nurra
- Department of Life Sciences and Systems Biology, University of Torino, via Accademia Albertina 13, 10123, Turin, Italy
- Pelagosphera, Marine Environmental Services Cooperative, Via Umberto Cosmo 17/Bis, 10131, Turin, Italy
| | - Rocco Mussat Sartor
- Department of Life Sciences and Systems Biology, University of Torino, via Accademia Albertina 13, 10123, Turin, Italy
- Pelagosphera, Marine Environmental Services Cooperative, Via Umberto Cosmo 17/Bis, 10131, Turin, Italy
| | - Marco Battuello
- Department of Life Sciences and Systems Biology, University of Torino, via Accademia Albertina 13, 10123, Turin, Italy
- Pelagosphera, Marine Environmental Services Cooperative, Via Umberto Cosmo 17/Bis, 10131, Turin, Italy
| | - Livio Favaro
- Department of Life Sciences and Systems Biology, University of Torino, via Accademia Albertina 13, 10123, Turin, Italy
| | - Giovanna Berti
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Piemonte, Liguria e Valle d'Aosta, via Bologna 148, 10154, Turin, Italy
| | - Alessandra Griglione
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Piemonte, Liguria e Valle d'Aosta, via Bologna 148, 10154, Turin, Italy
| | - Andrea Trossi
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Piemonte, Liguria e Valle d'Aosta, via Bologna 148, 10154, Turin, Italy
| | - Rosa Avolio
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Piemonte, Liguria e Valle d'Aosta, via Bologna 148, 10154, Turin, Italy
| | - Maria Cesarina Abete
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Piemonte, Liguria e Valle d'Aosta, via Bologna 148, 10154, Turin, Italy
| | - Stefania Squadrone
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Piemonte, Liguria e Valle d'Aosta, via Bologna 148, 10154, Turin, Italy.
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Viana JLM, Steffler DA, Hernández AH, Dos Santos Costa J, Pellegrinetti TA, de Jesus ECR, Cancian M, Fiore MF, Rezende-Filho AT, Sussulini A, Barbiero L, Menegario AA, Fostier AH. Bioaccumulation and speciation of arsenic in plankton from tropical soda lakes along a salinity gradient. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 895:165189. [PMID: 37391131 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.165189] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2023] [Revised: 05/19/2023] [Accepted: 06/26/2023] [Indexed: 07/02/2023]
Abstract
Uptake and transformation of arsenic (As) by living organisms can alter its distribution and biogeochemical cycles in the environment. Although well known for its toxicity, several aspects of As accumulation and biological transformation by field species are still little explored. In this study, the bioaccumulation and speciation of As in phytoplankton and zooplankton from five soda lakes in the Brazilian Pantanal wetland were studied. Such lakes exhibited contrasting biogeochemical characteristics along an environmental gradient. Additionally, the influence of contrasting climatic events was assessed by collecting samples during an exceptional drought in 2017 and a flood in 2018. Total As (AsTot) content and speciation were determined using spectrometric techniques, while a suspect screening of organoarsenicals in plankton samples was carried out by high-resolution mass spectrometry. Results showed that AsTot content ranged from 16.9 to 62.0 mg kg-1 during the dry period and from 2.4 to 12.3 mg kg-1 during the wet period. The bioconcentration and bioaccumulation factors (BCF and BAF) in phytoplankton and zooplankton were found to be highly dependent on the lake typology, which is influenced by an ongoing evapoconcentration process in the region. Eutrophic and As-enriched lakes exhibited the lowest BCF and BAF values, possibly due to the formation of non-labile As complexes with organic matter or limited uptake of As by plankton caused by high salinity stress. The season played a decisive role in the results, as significantly higher BCF and BAF values were observed during the flooding event when the concentration of dissolved As in water was low. The diversity of As species was found to be dependent on the lake typology and on the resident biological community, cyanobacteria being responsible for a significant portion of As metabolism. Arsenosugars and their degradation products were detected in both phytoplankton and zooplankton, providing evidence for previously reported detoxification pathways. Although no biomagnification pattern was observed, the diet seemed to be an important exposure pathway for zooplankton.
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Affiliation(s)
- José Lucas Martins Viana
- Institute of Chemistry, University of Campinas, UNICAMP, P.O. Box 6154, 13083-970 Campinas, SP, Brazil.
| | - Débora Aparecida Steffler
- Institute of Chemistry, University of Campinas, UNICAMP, P.O. Box 6154, 13083-970 Campinas, SP, Brazil
| | | | - Juliana Dos Santos Costa
- Center for Nuclear Energy in Agriculture, University of São Paulo, Avenida Centenario 303, 13400-970 Piracicaba, SP, Brazil
| | | | | | - Marianna Cancian
- Institute of Chemistry, University of Campinas, UNICAMP, P.O. Box 6154, 13083-970 Campinas, SP, Brazil
| | - Marli Fátima Fiore
- Center for Nuclear Energy in Agriculture, University of São Paulo, Avenida Centenario 303, 13400-970 Piracicaba, SP, Brazil
| | | | - Alessandra Sussulini
- Institute of Chemistry, University of Campinas, UNICAMP, P.O. Box 6154, 13083-970 Campinas, SP, Brazil
| | - Laurent Barbiero
- Institute of Chemistry, University of Campinas, UNICAMP, P.O. Box 6154, 13083-970 Campinas, SP, Brazil; Université P. Sabatier, IRD, CNRS, OMP, Géoscience Environnement Toulouse (GET), 14 Avenue Edouard Belin, F31400 Toulouse, France; Center of Sciences and Technologies for Sustainability, São Carlos Federal University, Sorocaba, SP 18052-780, Brazil
| | - Amauri Antonio Menegario
- São Paulo State University (UNESP), Environmental Studies Center, Av. 24-A, 1515, 13506-900 Rio Claro, SP, Brazil
| | - Anne Helene Fostier
- Institute of Chemistry, University of Campinas, UNICAMP, P.O. Box 6154, 13083-970 Campinas, SP, Brazil
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Papry RI, Miah S, Hasegawa H. Integrated environmental factor-dependent growth and arsenic biotransformation by aquatic microalgae: A review. CHEMOSPHERE 2022; 303:135164. [PMID: 35654229 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.135164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2022] [Revised: 05/16/2022] [Accepted: 05/27/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Arsenic (As) is a toxic metalloid posing harming the human food chain through trophic transfer. Microalgae are primary producers, ensuring bioaccumulation and biogeochemical cycling of As in water environment. They are highly efficient at removing As from the environment, making these microscopic organisms eco-friendly and money saving method in As remediation process. However, microalgal growth and As biotransformation potential relies greatly on individual and integrated environmental factors. This review scrutinizes the available literature on the As biotransformation potentials of various marine and freshwater microalgae under individual and integrated stresses of such factors. Various combinations of important factors such as temperature, salinity, concentrations of As (V) and PO43─, pH, light intensity, and length of exposure period are summarized along with the optimum conditions for different microalgae. The effects of environmental factors on microalgal growth, changes in cell shape, and the relationship between As biotransformation and other activities are discussed in detail. Time-dependent As speciation pattern by aquatic microalgae are reviewed. Conceptual models highlighting the microalgal species particularly linked with environmental factor-dependent As biotransformation mechanisms are also summarized. This review will contribute to an in depth understanding of the connection between environmental factors, As uptake, and the biotransformation mechanism of marine and freshwater microalgae from the perspective of As remediation process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rimana Islam Papry
- Institute of Science and Engineering, Kanazawa University, Kakuma, Kanazawa, 920-1192, Japan.
| | - Sohag Miah
- Institute of Forestry and Environmental Sciences, University of Chittagong, Chattogram, 4331, Bangladesh
| | - Hiroshi Hasegawa
- Institute of Science and Engineering, Kanazawa University, Kakuma, Kanazawa, 920-1192, Japan.
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Dong J, Li L, Liu Q, Yang M, Gao Z, Qian P, Gao K, Deng X. Interactive effects of polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) microplastics and salinity variation on a marine diatom Phaeodactylum tricornutum. CHEMOSPHERE 2022; 289:133240. [PMID: 34896422 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.133240] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2021] [Revised: 11/29/2021] [Accepted: 12/08/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Until now, knowledge about the interactive effects of microplastics and environmental factors on primary producers is quite limited. In this work, a marine diatom (Phaeodactylum tricornutum) was exposed to polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) microplastics at different salinities (25, 35, and 45‰) for 10 days in order to study their interactive effects. Results showed that growth of P. tricornutum was negatively affected by PMMA microplastics and salinity variation with a minimum EC50 value of 91.75 mg L-1. Photosynthetic activity of P. tricornutum was also inhibited by the two factors, and their interactive effects on chlorophyll fluorescence parameters (Fv/Fm and ΦPSII) were significant. In the algal cells, soluble protein accumulated, activities of two antioxidant enzymes changed, and malondialdehyde (MDA) content increased when this diatom was exposed to the microplastics at different salinities. These data would help to evaluate the risks of microplastics to primary producers under different environmental factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingwei Dong
- College of Biotechnology, Jiangsu University of Science and Technology, Zhenjiang, 212100, People's Republic of China
| | - Linqing Li
- College of Biotechnology, Jiangsu University of Science and Technology, Zhenjiang, 212100, People's Republic of China
| | - Qiaoqiao Liu
- College of Biotechnology, Jiangsu University of Science and Technology, Zhenjiang, 212100, People's Republic of China
| | - Mengting Yang
- College of Biotechnology, Jiangsu University of Science and Technology, Zhenjiang, 212100, People's Republic of China
| | - Zheng Gao
- College of Biotechnology, Jiangsu University of Science and Technology, Zhenjiang, 212100, People's Republic of China
| | - Pingkang Qian
- College of Biotechnology, Jiangsu University of Science and Technology, Zhenjiang, 212100, People's Republic of China
| | - Kun Gao
- College of Biotechnology, Jiangsu University of Science and Technology, Zhenjiang, 212100, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiangyuan Deng
- College of Biotechnology, Jiangsu University of Science and Technology, Zhenjiang, 212100, People's Republic of China.
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Hasegawa H, Akhyar O, Omori Y, Kato Y, Kosugi C, Miki O, Mashio AS, Papry RI. Role of Fe plaque on arsenic biotransformation by marine macroalgae. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 802:149776. [PMID: 34525751 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.149776] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2021] [Revised: 07/28/2021] [Accepted: 08/16/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Macroalgae can cycle arsenic (As) in the environment. In this study, the role of iron (Fe) plaque manipulation at active sites in the As biotransformation mechanism was investigated. The strain of marine macroalgal species, Pyrophia yezoensis, was inoculated in association with arsenate (As(V)) (1.0 μmol L-1) and phosphate (10 μmol L-1) in the medium for 7 days under laboratory-controlled conditions. The Fe plaque was removed by washing the Ti(III)-citrate-EDTA solution before inoculation. The limitation of Fe plaque did not significantly (p > 0.05) affect the chlorophyll fluorescence due to cellular regeneration, which was initiated immediately after washing. However, the speciation and uptake rate of As(V) increased significantly and reduced the inhibitory effect of P on the intracellular uptake of As(V) by P. yezoensis. In the culture medium without Fe plaque, approximately 66% of As(V) was removed with Vmax = 0.32 and Km = 1.92. In the absence of Fe plaque, methylated As species, such as dimethylarsinate (DMAA(V)), was recorded 0.28 μmol L-1, while in the presence of Fe plaque, the value was 0.16 μmol L-1. Inorganic trivalent As (As(III)) was absent in the washed samples; however, 0.53 μmol L-1 concentration of As(III) was still found in the presence of Fe plaque on day 7 of incubation. The results indicated that the absence of Fe plaque promoted higher intracellular uptake of As species, reduced the inhibitory effect of P, mitigated the co-precipitation bond between AsFe plaque and enhanced the detoxification process by DMAA excretion from the cell.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroshi Hasegawa
- Institute of Science and Engineering, Kanazawa University, Kakuma, Kanazawa 920-1192, Japan.
| | - Okviyoandra Akhyar
- Graduate School of Natural Science and Technology, Kanazawa University, Kakuma, Kanazawa 920-1192, Japan; Department of Chemistry Education, Islamic University of Kalimantan Muhammad Arsyad Al Banjari, Jl. Adhyaksa No. 2 Kayu Tangi, Banjarmasin 70123, Indonesia
| | - Yoshiki Omori
- Graduate School of Natural Science and Technology, Kanazawa University, Kakuma, Kanazawa 920-1192, Japan
| | - Yusuke Kato
- Graduate School of Natural Science and Technology, Kanazawa University, Kakuma, Kanazawa 920-1192, Japan
| | - Chika Kosugi
- Advanced Technology Research Laboratories, Nippon Steel Corporation, 20-1 Shintomi, Futtsu City, Chiba 293-8511, Japan
| | - Osamu Miki
- Institute of Science and Engineering, Kanazawa University, Kakuma, Kanazawa 920-1192, Japan
| | - Asami Suzuki Mashio
- Institute of Science and Engineering, Kanazawa University, Kakuma, Kanazawa 920-1192, Japan
| | - Rimana Islam Papry
- Graduate School of Natural Science and Technology, Kanazawa University, Kakuma, Kanazawa 920-1192, Japan.
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Papry RI, Fujisawa S, Zai Y, Akhyar O, Mashio AS, Hasegawa H. Freshwater phytoplankton: Salinity stress on arsenic biotransformation. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2021; 270:116090. [PMID: 33272797 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2020.116090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2020] [Revised: 10/16/2020] [Accepted: 11/12/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Salinity stress affects aquatic microalgal growth and their physiological responses have been studied extensively. However, arsenic (As) accumulation and biotransformation by freshwater phytoplankton under a salinity gradient have never been addressed. This study reports a distinctive pattern of As uptake, accumulation, and biotransformation by four axenic freshwater phytoplankton species, i.e., Scenedesmus acutus, Closterium aciculare, Staurastrum paradoxum, and Pediastrum duplex. Phytoplankton cells were incubated in sterilised C medium modified with varying salinity levels (0-5‰) in association with arsenate and phosphate concentrations. The biotransformation of arsenate (i.e., As(V)) to arsenite (As(III)) and to further methylated species decreased with increasing salinity in the culture medium whereas As accumulation increased. Among the four strains, only S. acutus and S. paradoxum converted As(V) to As(III), with no detected methylated species. In contrast, C. aciculare and P. duplex biotransformed As(V) to As(III) and further to methyl arsenic species, such as DMAA. S. acutus and S. paradoxum exhibited higher accumulation tendency than the other two species. S. paradoxum showed the lowest As reduction rate (i.e., As(V) to As(III)) compared to other species, although, without significant variations. The morphological changes were observed in phytoplankton cells in response to increased salinity stress. Moreover, As(V) concentrations in the culture medium significantly decreased by day 7-14. Thus, this study presents a conceptual model of the As biotransformation pattern by axenic freshwater phytoplankton.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rimana Islam Papry
- Graduate School of Natural Science and Technology, Kanazawa University, Kakuma, Kanazawa, 920-1192, Japan
| | - Shogo Fujisawa
- Graduate School of Natural Science and Technology, Kanazawa University, Kakuma, Kanazawa, 920-1192, Japan
| | - Yinghan Zai
- Graduate School of Natural Science and Technology, Kanazawa University, Kakuma, Kanazawa, 920-1192, Japan
| | - Okviyoandra Akhyar
- Graduate School of Natural Science and Technology, Kanazawa University, Kakuma, Kanazawa, 920-1192, Japan; Department of Chemistry Education, Islamic University of Kalimantan Muhammad Arsyad Al Banjari, Jl. Adhyaksa No. 2 Kayu Tangi, Banjarmasin, 70123, Indonesia
| | - Asami Suzuki Mashio
- Institute of Science and Engineering, Kanazawa University, Kakuma, Kanazawa, 920-1192, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Hasegawa
- Institute of Science and Engineering, Kanazawa University, Kakuma, Kanazawa, 920-1192, Japan.
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Papry RI, Fujisawa S, Yinghan Z, Akhyar O, Al Mamun MA, Mashio AS, Hasegawa H. Integrated effects of important environmental factors on arsenic biotransformation and photosynthetic efficiency by marine microalgae. ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2020; 201:110797. [PMID: 32505760 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2020.110797] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2020] [Revised: 05/21/2020] [Accepted: 05/22/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Microalgae play an important role in arsenic (As) bioaccumulation and biogeochemical cycling in marine ecosystems. Marine microalgal growth and As biotransformation processes depend on environmental factors, including salinity, temperature, and nutrient concentrations, and data in this regard are available in the literature. However, research on the integrated effects of environmental factors on marine diatom species remains scarce and unclear. Herein, salinity and temperature are both considered in combination to investigate their influence on As uptake, biotransformation, and photosynthetic efficiency (PE). Two strains of marine diatom species, Asteroplanus karianus and Skeletonema sp., were cultured in an f/2-based nutrient medium. Microalgae were cultured under various temperatures (5.0, 20, and 35 °C) and salinities (1.0‰, 10‰, 25‰, and 40‰) in association with As and phosphate-enriched (1.0 μmol L-1 of As(V) + 10 μmol L-1 of PO43-) or deficient (20 nmol L-1 of As(V) + 1.0 μmol L-1 of PO43-) conditions. For both species, maximum growth, As accumulation, biotransformation, and PE were recorded at 10 and 14 day of culture. Microalgal growth, As accumulation, biotransformation, and PE were maximum at 20 °C with salinities of 10‰ and 20‰. Cell shape was also observed to be good at optimal at this temperature (20 °C) and range of salinity (10‰ and 20‰). A conceptual model of integrated effects of environmental factors on growth and As accumulation and biotransformation activities by these marine microalgae has been proposed. This study contributed to the elucidation of the relationship between environmental factors and As biotransformation mechanisms, which may further provide significant insight about As remediation processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rimana Islam Papry
- Graduate School of Natural Science and Technology, Kanazawa University, Kakuma, Kanazawa, 920-1192, Japan.
| | - Shogo Fujisawa
- Graduate School of Natural Science and Technology, Kanazawa University, Kakuma, Kanazawa, 920-1192, Japan
| | - Zai Yinghan
- Graduate School of Natural Science and Technology, Kanazawa University, Kakuma, Kanazawa, 920-1192, Japan
| | - Okviyoandra Akhyar
- Graduate School of Natural Science and Technology, Kanazawa University, Kakuma, Kanazawa, 920-1192, Japan; Department of Chemistry Education, Islamic University of Kalimantan Muhammad Arsyad Al Banjari, Jl. Adhyaksa No. 2 Kayu Tangi, Banjarmasin, 70123, Indonesia
| | - M Abdullah Al Mamun
- Graduate School of Natural Science and Technology, Kanazawa University, Kakuma, Kanazawa, 920-1192, Japan; Department of Soil Science, Hajee Mohammad Danesh Science and Technology University, Dinajpur, Bangladesh
| | - Asami S Mashio
- Institute of Science and Engineering, Kanazawa University, Kakuma, Kanazawa, 920-1192, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Hasegawa
- Institute of Science and Engineering, Kanazawa University, Kakuma, Kanazawa, 920-1192, Japan.
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A Review of Algae-Based Produced Water Treatment for Biomass and Biofuel Production. WATER 2020. [DOI: 10.3390/w12092351] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Produced water (PW), the largest waste stream generated in oil and gas industries, has the potential to be a harmless product rather than being a waste. Biological processes using microorganisms have proven useful to remediate PW contaminated by petroleum hydrocarbons, complex organic chemicals, and solvents. In particular, the bioremediation of PW using algae is an eco-friendly and low-cost approach due to algae’s ability to utilize certain pollutants as nutrient sources. Therefore, the utilization of PW as an algal growth medium has a great potential to eliminate chemicals from the PW and minimize the large volumes of freshwater needed for cultivation. Although several reviews describing the bioremediation of PW have been published, to the best of our knowledge, no review has exclusively focused on the algae-based PW treatment. Therefore, the present review is dedicated to filling this gap by portraying the many different facets of the algae cultivation in PW. Several algal species that are known to thrive in a wide range of salinity and the critical steps for their cultivation in hypersaline PW have been identified. Overall, this comprehensive review highlights the PW bioremediation using algae and brings attention to utilizing PW to grow biomass that can be processed to generate biofuels and useful bioproducts.
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