Eplerenone is not superior to older and less expensive aldosterone antagonists

The Effectiveness of Eplerenone vs Spironolactone on Left Ventricular Systolic Function, Hospitalization and Cardiovascular Death in Patients With Chronic Heart Failure-HFrEF

Background

Heart failure remains one of the most prevalent clinical syndromes associated with significant morbidity and mortality. According to current guidelines, the prescription of a MRA is recommended to reduce the risk of HF hospitalization and death in all patients with symptomatic heart failure and no contraindications for this therapy.

Objective

The aim of our study was to determine the efficacy of eplerenone vs. spironolactone on left ventricular systolic function by measuring left ventricle ejection fraction (LVEF) in patients with chronic heart failure, especially their effect on preventing hospitalization, reducing mortality, and improving clinical status among patients with chronic HF.

Methods

From June 2021 to June 2022, the study was a randomized, prospective clinical trial single blind study. A total of 142 patients of chronic heart failure with reduced ejection fraction were selected by random sampling. Each patient was randomly allocated into either of the two groups and was continued receiving treatment with either spironolactone (Spiron-HF group) or eplerenone (Epler-HF group). Patients in Epler-HF group were compared with an arm of the same size and matched by age and gender patients in Spiron-HF group for management of chronic HFrEF. Each patient was evaluated clinically, biochemically, and echocardiographically at the beginning of treatment (baseline) after 6 months and at the end of 12th month. Echocardiography was performed to find out change in left ventricular systolic function.

Results

After 12 months of treatment, significant improvement of left ventricular ejection fraction was observed in eplerenone treated arm (37.9 ± 3.8 ± 4.6 in Spiron-HF group versus 40.1 ± 5.7 in Epler-HF group; P < 0.05). A significant reduction in left ventricular end-systolic volume (6.3 ± 2.5ml in Spiron-HF versus 17.8± 4.4ml in Epler-HF group; P < 0.05) and left ventricular systolic diameter volume (2.7 ± 0.5ml in Spiron-HF versus 6.7 ± 0.2ml in Epler-HF group; P < 0.05), occurred after 12 months of treatment. Left ventricular global longitudinal strain (LV GLS) was significantly improved in Epler-HF group compared with Spiron-HF group (0.6 ± 0.4 versus 3.4 ± 0.9; P < 0.05). There were no significant differences observed in reduction of left ventricular end-diastolic volume (2.2 ± 0.5 ml versus 4.7 ± 1.1ml; P =0.103) and left ventricular diastolic diameter (1.2 ± 0.6 versus 1.7 ± 0.3; P=0.082) in both arms. The effects of both MRA agents spironolactone and eplerenone on the primary composite outcome, each of the individual mortality and hospital admission outcomes are shown in Figure 1 and 2. Patients of the Epler-HF group showed statistically significant lower cardiovascular mortality (HR 0.53; 95% CI 0.34-0.82; p= 0.007) and all-cause mortality (HR 0.64; 95% CI 0.44-0.93; p= 0.022) than patients of the Spiron-HF group. The statistical analysis did not show a statistically significant difference between Epler -HF and Spiron-HF study groups regarding the risk of the primary composite outcome; cardiovascular death or hospitalization due to HF (Hazard Ratio (HR) eplerenone vs. spironolactone = 0.95; 95% Confidence Interval (CI) 0.73- 1.27; p= 0.675).

Conclusion

Our study has demonstrated favorable effects of eplerenone on cardiac remodeling parameters and reduction of cardiovascular mortality and all-cause mortality compared with spironolactone in the treatment of HFrEF. The ability of eplerenone to effectively block the mineralocorticoid receptor while minimizing side effects and a significant reduction in the risk of hospitalization and cardiovascular death confirms its key role in the treatment of patients with chronic HFrEF.

[Three ages of spironolactone. Evolution of views on spironolactone capabilities in the treatment of patients with heart failure.]

The article describes the history of the discovery of aldosterone and the creation of its antagonist, spironolactone. The effects of aldosterone associated with the stimulation of two types of receptors.  Long-term effect (nuclear or genomic) and fast - term (membrane). They are manifested not only by the influence on the water-salt metabolism and the volume of extracellular fluid, but also in the regulation of vascular tone and elasticity of the vascular wall and, most interestingly, the effect on cardiac remodeling. Early after its development  Spironolactone was considered as a medicine for water-salt metabolism regulation, diuresis and normalization of blood pressure. In the following period,  Spironolactone embraced a new area - systolic heart failure. The drug was considered not only to enhance safe diuresis, but also to eliminate the phenomenon of escape of the antialdosterone effect angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors. The change in the paradigm of heart failure towards the prevailing changes in her diastolic phenotype, which is based on excessive diffuse myocardial fibrosis, changed role of spironolactone in the treatment of heart failure. Currently, it is considered as an independent drug, due to its powerful antifibrotic effect, blocking which controls the whole complex of endo- and paracrine effects of aldosterone.

Real world comparison of spironolactone and eplerenone in patients with heart failure

AIMS

In the absence of previous direct comparative studies, we aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of spironolactone and eplerenone in patients with heart failure and reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF) in a real-world clinical setting.

METHODS

Using Fine-Gray´s competing risk regression, we compared the clinical outcomes of 293 patients with chronic HF and left ventricular ejection fraction <40% treated with eplerenone and 293 propensity-score matched individuals treated with spironolactone. Study subjects were selected from a prospective cohort of 1404 ambulatory patients with HFrEF seen since 2010 to 2019 in a single specialized HF clinic, among which 992 received a mineralocorticoid receptor antagonist at baseline. Median follow-up was 3.95 years.

RESULTS

No statistically significant differences between patients treated with eplerenone versus spironolactone were observed with regard to the risk of the primary composite end-point cardiovascular death or HF hospitalization (HR 0.95; 95% CI 0.73-1.23; p= 0.677). However, eplerenone use was associated to lower cardiovascular mortality (HR 0.55; 95% CI 0.35-0.85; p= 0.008) and lower all-cause mortality (HR 0.67; 95% CI 0.47-0.95; p= 0.027). The incidence of drug suspension due to side effects (HR 0.58, 95% CI 0.40-0.85; p= 0.005) and drug suspension due to any reason (HR 0.70, 95% CI 0.51-0.97; p= 0.033) were lower among patients treated with eplerenone.

CONCLUSIONS

In this observational, real-world, propensity-score matched study of patients with HFrEF, eplerenone was associated to lower cardiovascular mortality and lower all-cause mortality than spironolactone.

Effect of Mineralocorticoid Receptor Antagonists in Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction and with Reduced Ejection Fraction - A Narrative Review

BACKGROUND

Heart failure is a major cause of morbidity and mortality globally. By end of this decade, ~8 million Americans will have heart failure, with an expenditure of $69.8 billion.

OBJECTIVE

In this narrative review, we evaluate the benefits, potential risks, and role of Mineralocorticoid Receptor Antagonists (MRAs) in the management of both Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction (HFpEF) and Heart Failure with Reduced Ejection Fraction (HFrEF).

METHODS

We performed a comprehensive literature review to assess the available evidence on the role of MRAs in heart failure using the online databases (PubMed, Embase, Scopus, CINAHL, and Google Scholar).

RESULTS

Clinical evidence shows that MRAs, such as spironolactone and eplerenone, reduce mortality and readmissions for patients with HFrEF compared with placebo. Furthermore, one trial has reported that MRAs minimize heart failure hospitalization in patients with HFpEF. The American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Guidelines strongly recommend using MRA in patients with reduced left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) with Class II-IV symptoms, estimated glomerular filtration rate >30 ml/min/1.73 m2, and absence of hyperkalemia. Despite this, MRAs are underutilized in the management of heart failure.

CONCLUSIONS

MRAs improve outcomes in patients with both HFpEF and HFrEF but remain underutilized.

Relative Efficacy of Spironolactone, Eplerenone, and cAnRenone in patients with Chronic Heart failure (RESEARCH): a systematic review and network meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials

This study aims to assess the comparative benefit and risk profile of treatment with mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists (MRAs) with regard to all-cause mortality (primary endpoint), cardiovascular mortality, or heart failure (HF)-related hospitalization (secondary endpoints) and the safety endpoints hyperkalemia, acute renal failure, and gynecomastia in patients with chronic HF. We conducted a systematic review and network meta-analysis following PRISMA-P and PRISMA-NMA guidelines. From 16 different sources, 14 randomized controlled trials totaling 12,213 patients testing an active treatment of either spironolactone, eplerenone, or canrenone/potassium-canreonate in adults with symptomatic HF due to systolic dysfunction reporting any of the above endpoints were retained. Efficacy in comparison to placebo/standard medical care with respect to all-cause mortality was confirmed for spironolactone and eplerenone while no conclusion could be drawn for canrenone (HR 0.69 (0.62; 0.77), 0.82 (0.75; 0.91), and 0.50 (0.17; 1.45), respectively). Indirect comparisons hint a potential (non-significant) preference of spironolactone over eplerenone (HR 0.84 (0.68; 1.03)). The overall risk of bias was low to intermediate. Results for secondary endpoints as well as sensitivity analyses essentially mirrored these findings. The beta-blocker adjusted meta-analysis for the primary endpoint showed the same tendency as the unadjusted one (HR 0.39 (0.07; 2.03)). Results need to be interpreted with caution, though, as the resultant mix of patient- and study-level covariates produced unstable statistical modeling. We found no significant and systematic superiority of either MRA regarding efficacy toward all endpoints considered in both direct and indirect comparisons.

Spotlight on Spironolactone Oral Suspension for the Treatment of Heart Failure: Focus on Patient Selection and Perspectives

Spironolactone, an antagonist of aldosterone, initially used as a potassium-sparing diuretic, was subsequently shown to be a very effective adjunctive agent in the treatment of patients with heart failure with reduced ejection fraction, by halting the disease progression, with significant beneficial effects on both morbidity and mortality. Other uses comprise resistant hypertension, edema in patients with cirrhosis, and other on- and off-label uses. Recent data indicate that spironolactone also may offer some symptomatic relief in patients with heart failure and preserved ejection fraction. However, a variable percentage of patients, particularly among the aged group, may have difficulty in swallowing or may be unable to swallow tablets and thus are deprived of the benefits of such therapy. In 2017, the FDA approved a liquid suspension formulation of spironolactone, CaroSpir^®, which will enable more heart failure and other patients in need of aldosterone inhibition to avail themselves of the protective and beneficial effects of spironolactone. The new drug formulation comes as a banana-flavored oral suspension that contains 25 mg/5 mL of spironolactone, supplied in 4-ounce (118 mL) and 16-ounce (473 mL) bottles. The details of this drug formulation development and the benefits of spironolactone use in patients with heart failure with a focus on patient selection are herein reviewed.

Mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists in patients with acute myocardial infarction - A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized trials

BACKGROUND

Although mineralocorticoid antagonists (MRAs) reduce mortality in patients with heart failure complicating myocardial infarction (MI), it is unclear if they could be beneficial to all patients with MI. To evaluate the utility of MRAs in MI patients, we performed a systematic review and meta-analysis.

METHODS

MEDLINE, EMBASE, and Cochrane CENTRAL were searched from 1965 to June 2016. Conference abstracts were searched from 2000 to June 2016. Randomized trials evaluating the effect of MRA after MIs were included. Two reviewers independently extracted data and assessed study quality. Data were combined using fixed-/random-effects models.

RESULTS

Eleven randomized clinical trials (N = 11,258) were included; 1 trial (N = 6,642) included patients with apparent heart failure (Killip class III-IV). Administration of MRA versus placebo or standard therapy (no-MRA) after MI reduced overall and cardiovascular mortality (odds ratio [OR] 0.82, 95% CI 0.73-0.93, P = .002, and OR 0.82, 95% CI 0.71-0.93, P = .003, respectively; I² for both = 0%). In the subgroup of trials with patients with heart failure, the mortality was 14.4% in MRA group versus 16.7% in no-MRA group (OR 0.84, 95% CI 0.73-0.96), and among those without heart failure, it was 2.5% with MRA versus 3.5% without MRA (OR 0.72, 95% CI 0.51-1.02, P for interaction = .43). Patients receiving MRA had fewer new or worsening heart failure events (OR 0.74, 95% CI 0.66-0.84, P < .0001; I² = 14%). Nevertheless, MRA therapy increased risk for hyperkalemia (≥5.5 mmol/L) (OR 2.52, 95% CI 1.36-4.65, P = .003; I² = 63%).

CONCLUSIONS

Administration of MRA may reduce mortality after acute MI. However, this is largely based on post-MI patients with heart failure. Further data are needed in MI patients without heart failure.

Oxidative Alkane C-H Alkoxycarbonylation

Directly utilizing a chemical feedstock to construct valuable compounds is an attractive prospect in organic synthesis. In particular, the combination of C(sp(3) )-H activation and oxidative carbonylation involving alkanes and CO gas is a promising and efficient method to synthesize carbonyl derivatives. However, due to the high C-H bond dissociation energy and low polarity of unactivated alkanes, the carbonylation of unactivated C(sp(3) )-H bonds still remains a great challenge. In this work, we introduce a palladium-catalyzed radical oxidative alkoxycarbonylation of alkanes to prepare numerous alkyl carboxylates. Various alkanes and alcohols were compatible, generating the desired products in up to 94 % yield. Remarkably, ethane, a constituent of natural gas, could be employed as a substrate under the standard reaction conditions. Preliminary mechanistic studies revealed a probable palladium-catalyzed radical process.

Cost-Effectiveness of Eplerenone Compared to Usual Care in Patients With Chronic Heart Failure and NYHA Class II Symptoms, an Australian Perspective

The objective of this study was to determine the cost-effectiveness of eplerenone compared with usual care in patients with chronic heart failure and New York Heart Association (NYHA) Class II symptoms.A Markov model was constructed with 5 health states to reflect NYHA symptom status (Classes I-IV) and death. All subjects began in the "Class II" health state and then moved to other symptom health states or died. Subjects could also be hospitalized for HF in any cycle. Transition probabilities were derived from the Eplerenone in Mild Patients Hospitalization And Survival Study in Heart Failure (EMPHASIS-HF) study. Decision analysis was applied to compare an Eplerenone Group with a Usual Care Group (UCG). In the UCG, 47.3% of subjects in Class II and 93.7% of subjects in Classes III and IV were assumed to be taking spironolactone (as per published data). In the Eplerenone Group, all subjects in Classes II, III, and IV were assumed to be taking eplerenone. The efficacy of spironolactone was assumed to be the same as eplerenone. Cost and utility data were derived from published sources. A discount rate of 5.0% was applied to future costs and benefits. The outcome of interest was incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER) (cost per year of live saved (YoLS) and quality-adjusted life years (QALY) gained).Over 10 years the model predicted that for each patient compared with usual care, eplerenone would lead to 0.26 YoLS (discounted) and 0.19 QALYs gained (discounted), at a net cost of AUD $6961 (discounted). These equate to ICERs of AUD 28,001 per YoLS and AUD 37,452 per QALY gained. Sensitivity analyses indicated a 99.0% likelihood of eplerenone being cost-effective compared with usual care at a willingness to pay threshold of AUD 50,000 per QALY gained.From an Australian healthcare perspective, the addition of eplerenone in management of patients with chronic heart failure and NYHA Class II symptoms represents a cost-effective strategy compared with usual care.

Cost-effectiveness of screening strategies to detect heart failure in patients with type 2 diabetes

BACKGROUND

Heart failure (HF), especially with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF) is common in older patients with type 2 diabetes (T2DM), but often not recognized. Early HF detection in older T2DM patients may be worthwhile because treatment may be initiated in an early stage, with clear beneficial treatment in those with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF), but without clear prognostic beneficial treatment in those with HFpEF. Because both types of HF may be uncovered in older T2DM, screening may improve health outcomes at acceptable costs. We assessed the cost-effectiveness of five screening strategies in patients with T2DM aged 60 years or over.

METHODS

We built a Markov model with a lifetime horizon based on the prognostic results from our screening study of 581 patients with T2DM, extended with evidence from literature. Cost-effectiveness was calculated from a Dutch healthcare perspective as additional costs (Euros) per additional quality-adjusted life-year (QALY) gained. We performed probabilistic sensitivity analysis to assess robustness of these outcomes. Scenario analyses were performed to assess the influence of the availability of effective treatment of heart failure with preserved ejection fraction.

RESULTS

For willingness to pay values in the range of €6050/QALY-€31,000/QALY for men and €6300/QALY-€42,000/QALY for women, screening-based checking the electronic medical record for patient characteristics and medical history plus the assessment of symptoms had the highest probability of being cost-effective. For higher willingness-to-pay values, direct echocardiography was the preferred screening strategy. Cost-effectiveness of all screening strategies improved with the increase in effectiveness of treatment for HFpEF.

CONCLUSIONS

Screening for HF in older community-dwelling patients with T2DM is cost-effective at the commonly used willingness-to-pay threshold of €20.000/QALY by checking the electronic medical record for patient characteristics and medical history plus the assessment of symptoms. The simplicity of such a strategy makes it feasible for implementation in existing primary care diabetes management programs.

Impact of Aldosterone Antagonists on Sudden Cardiac Death Prevention in Heart Failure and Post-Myocardial Infarction Patients: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials

Background and Objectives

Sudden cardiac death (SCD) is a severe burden of modern medicine. Aldosterone antagonist is publicized as effective in reducing mortality in patients with heart failure (HF) or post myocardial infarction (MI). Our study aimed to assess the efficacy of AAs on mortality including SCD, hospitalization admission and several common adverse effects.

Methods

We searched Embase, PubMed, Web of Science, Cochrane library and clinicaltrial.gov for randomized controlled trials (RCTs) assigning AAs in patients with HF or post MI through May 2015. The comparator included standard medication or placebo, or both. Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines were followed. Event rates were compared using a random effects model. Prospective RCTs of AAs with durations of at least 8 weeks were selected if they included at least one of the following outcomes: SCD, all-cause/cardiovascular mortality, all-cause/cardiovascular hospitalization and common side effects (hyperkalemia, renal function degradation and gynecomastia).

Results

Data from 19,333 patients enrolled in 25 trials were included. In patients with HF, this treatment significantly reduced the risk of SCD by 19% (RR 0.81; 95% CI, 0.67–0.98; p = 0.03); all-cause mortality by 19% (RR 0.81; 95% CI, 0.74–0.88, p<0.00001) and cardiovascular death by 21% (RR 0.79; 95% CI, 0.70–0.89, p<0.00001). In patients with post-MI, the matching reduced risks were 20% (RR 0.80; 95% CI, 0.66–0.98; p = 0.03), 15% (RR 0.85; 95% CI, 0.76–0.95, p = 0.003) and 17% (RR 0.83; 95% CI, 0.74–0.94, p = 0.003), respectively. Concerning both subgroups, the relative risks respectively decreased by 19% (RR 0.81; 95% CI, 0.71–0.92; p = 0.002) for SCD, 18% (RR 0.82; 95% CI, 0.77–0.88, p < 0.0001) for all-cause mortality and 20% (RR 0.80; 95% CI, 0.74–0.87, p < 0.0001) for cardiovascular mortality in patients treated with AAs. As well, hospitalizations were significantly reduced, while common adverse effects were significantly increased.

Conclusion

Aldosterone antagonists appear to be effective in reducing SCD and other mortality events, compared with placebo or standard medication in patients with HF and/or after a MI.

[Mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists in the treatment of patients with chronic heart failure. Positions in 2015]

Mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists (MCRA) are part of standard medical therapy for heart failure (HF). The clinical efficacy of MCRA in patients with systolic HF has been proven by randomized clinical trials. The efficacy of this drug group in patients with chronic HF with preserved left ventricular systolic function and the advent and practical introductions of safer new-generation MCRA remain to be answered.

Efficacy of mineralocorticoid receptor antagonism in the acute myocardial infarction phase: eplerenone versus spironolactone

AIMS

The selective mineralocorticoid receptor (MR) antagonist eplerenone given early in patients with acute myocardial infarction (MI) improves clinical outcome, whereas little is known about the effectiveness of early spironolactone therapy. We aimed to compare the ability of eplerenone and spironolactone to promote cardiac repair after experimental MI.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Starting immediately after coronary artery ligation, C57BL/6J mice were treated with placebo, eplerenone, or spironolactone. At 7 days, treatment with eplerenone or spironolactone reduced thinning and expansion of healing infarct and improved early left ventricular chamber enlargement. Remarkably, eplerenone therapy resulted in significantly greater improvement than spironolactone of left ventricular contractile function and relaxation, associated with a more considerable leftward and downward shift of the pressure volume curve. Seven-day survival rate was significantly increased only in eplerenone treated mice. Moreover, eplerenone was superior to spironolactone in ameliorating neovessel formation in the injured myocardium. Optimized flow cytometry analysis of the monocyte differentiation marker Ly6C revealed predominant accumulation of Ly6Chigh monocytes/macrophages at the site of ischemic injury during the early inflammatory phase in placebo-treated mice. In contrast, MR antagonism, especially by eplerenone, led to a skewing of the monocyte/macrophage population toward a higher frequency of healing promoting Ly6Clow cells.

CONCLUSION

The MR antagonist eplerenone versus spironolactone showed superior efficacy during the acute MI phase with more beneficial effects on survival, early cardiac dilation, and functional decline. Modulation of monocyte maturation and enhanced infarct neovessel formation appears to play a pivotal role.

Progress in primary aldosteronism. Mineralocorticoid antagonist treatment for aldosterone-producing adenoma

Mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists have been used in patients with aldosterone-producing adenomas (APAs) as a test designed to predict the blood pressure (BP) outcome of surgery. They are commonly used in patients undergoing adrenalectomy to reduce BP and increase plasma potassium levels during the preoperative period. A small number of studies have compared the effects of surgery and mineralocorticoid antagonists either on BP, on serum potassium levels, or on the incidence of cardiovascular and renal outcomes in patients with primary aldosteronism with or without an APA; these studies found no difference between the two therapeutic options. Mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists can be used as a maintenance treatment for patients with APAs, who are judged to be poor operative risks or who do not want to undergo surgery.

Comparison of aldosterone synthesis in adrenal cells, effect of various AT1 receptor blockers with or without atrial natriuretic peptide

Bifunctional angiotensin II (Ang II) type 1 (AT1) receptor blockers (ARBs) that can block the activation of not only AT1 receptor, but also neprilysin, which metabolizes vasoactive peptides including atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), are currently being developed. However, the usefulness of the inactivation of ANP in addition to the AT1 receptor with regard to aldosterone (Ald) synthesis is not yet clear. We evaluated the inhibitory effects of various ARBs combined with or without ANP on Ang II-induced adrenal Ald synthesis using a human adrenocortical cell line (NCI-H295R). Ang II increased Ald synthesis in a dose- and time-dependent manner. Ald synthesis induced by Ang II was completely blocked by azilsartan, but not PD123319 (AT2 receptor antagonist). CGP42112 AT2 receptor agonist did not affect Ald synthesis. While most ARBs block Ang II-induced Ald synthesis to different extents, azilsartan and olmesartan have similar blocking effects on Ald synthesis. The different effects of ARBs were particularly observed at 10(-7) and 10(-8 )M. ANP attenuated Ang II-induced Ald synthesis, and ANP-mediated attenuation of Ang II-induced Ald synthesis were blocked by inhibitors of G-protein signaling subtype 4 and protein kinase G. ANP (10(-8) and 10(-7 )M) without ARBs inhibited Ald synthesis, and the combination of ANP (10(-7 )M) and ARB (10(-8 )M) had an additive effect with respect to the inhibition of Ald synthesis. In conclusions, ARBs had differential effects on Ang II-induced Ald synthesis, and ANP may help to block Ald synthesis when the dose of ARB is not sufficient to block its secretion.

[Acute and chronic heart failure in light of the new ESC guidelines]

In June 2012, the New Guidelines for the Treatment of Acute and Chronic Heart Failure of the European Society of Cardiology were published. According to the EMPHASIS-HF trial, mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists are indicated in all stages of symptomatic chronic heart failure under treatment with β-blockers and ACE inhibitors. Based on the SHIFT trial, patients with class NYHA II-IV heart failure, an ejection fraction <35%, and sinus rhythm with a heart rate of >70/min despite pharmacological treatment including β-blockers at the maximum tolerated dose should be treated with ivabradin. The RAFT trial justified the extended indication for CRT systems. In acute heart failure, the RELAX-AHF trial showed promising results with serelaxin. This manuscript summarizes the innovations of the new guidelines and the underlying clinical trials.

Cost effectiveness of eplerenone in patients with chronic heart failure

BACKGROUND

Chronic heart failure (CHF) remains an important cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Currently, there are no cost-effectiveness studies of eplerenone use in patients with New York Heart Association (NYHA) class II CHF.

OBJECTIVE

We sought to evaluate the cost effectiveness of eplerenone compared with placebo in patients with chronic systolic heart failure and NYHA class II symptoms.

METHODS AND RESULTS

A 10-year Markov model with yearly cycles was constructed to evaluate the cost effectiveness of eplerenone compared with placebo, based on data from the EMPHASIS-HF (Eplerenone in Mild Patients Hospitalization And Survival Study in Heart Failure) study. The model classified subjects into two health states: 'Alive with CHF' and 'Dead'. Information about the cost of disease was derived from Australian Refined Diagnosis-Related Groups (AR-DRG) data. The cost of eplerenone was taken from the Australian Pharmaceutical Benefit Scheme. Utility data were derived from published sources, and a 5 % annual discount rate was applied to future costs and benefits. Over 10 years, and compared with placebo, the model predicted that eplerenone would lead to a saving of 0.5 life-years (discounted) and 0.4 quality-adjusted life-years (QALYs) per person. The net cost was (in Australian dollars [$A]) $A6,117 (discounted) per person. These equated to incremental cost-effectiveness ratios of $A12,024 per life-year saved and $A16,700 per QALY saved. Sensitivity analyses indicated that these results were robust.

CONCLUSION

Eplerenone may represent a cost-effective strategy for preventing morbidity and mortality among patients with chronic systolic heart failure and NYHA class II symptoms.

Evolving strategies for the use of spironolactone in cardiovascular disease

The evolution of strategies for the use of spironolactone and its analogue, eplerenone, has, over the years, encompassed favourable modification of the natural history of symptomatic heart failure in subjects with subnormal left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF), and mitigation of the risk of new-onset atrial fibrillation in mildly symptomatic systolic heart failure. Given the fact that these benefits might be attributable, at least in part, to mitigation of severity of diastolic dysfunction when the latter co-exists with subnormal LVEF, what needs to be explored is the possibility of similar benefits from the use of these agents in patients such as those with hypertension, and aortic valve stenosis, in whom left ventricular dysfunction is of the predominantly diastolic subtype.

Cost-effectiveness of heart failure therapies

Heart failure (HF) is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Management of HF involves accurate diagnosis and implementation of evidence-based treatment strategies. Costs related to the care of patients with HF have increased substantially over the past 2 decades, partly owing to new medications and diagnostic tests, increased rates of hospitalization, implantation of costly novel devices and, as the disease progresses, consideration for heart transplantation, mechanical circulatory support, and end-of-life care. Not surprisingly, HF places a huge burden on health-care systems, and widespread implementation of all potentially beneficial therapies for HF could prove unrealistic for many, if not all, nations. Cost-effectiveness analyses can help to quantify the relationship between clinical outcomes and the economic implications of available therapies. This Review is a critical overview of cost-effectiveness studies on key areas of HF management, involving pharmacological and nonpharmacological clinical therapies, including device-based and surgical therapeutic strategies.