1
|
Lan Z, Zhang X, Xu M, Kong J, Zuo X, Wang Y, Wang C, Teng Y, Ni Y, Zhang Y. Whole-genome resequencing and transcriptional profiling association analysis revealed the intraspecies difference response to oligosaccharides utilization in Bifidobacterium animalis subsp. lactis. Front Microbiol 2024; 15:1375384. [PMID: 38659979 PMCID: PMC11041377 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2024.1375384] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2024] [Accepted: 03/13/2024] [Indexed: 04/26/2024] Open
Abstract
Introduction As prebiotics, oligosaccharides are frequently combined with Bifidobacterium to develop synbiotic products. However, a highly diverse gene repertoire of Bifidobacterium is involved in sugar catabolism, and even phylogenetically close species may differ in their sugar utilization capabilities. To further explore the mechanism underlying the differences in Bifidobacterium animalis subsp. lactis oligosaccharide metabolism. Methods This study screened strains with differential oligosaccharide metabolism. Subsequently, these strains were subjected to genome-wide resequencing and RT-qPCR. Results The resequencing results indicated that the subspecies of B. animalis subsp. lactis had a high genome similarity. The RT-qPCR results revealed that glycosidase genes exhibited consistency in the phenotype of metabolism at the transcriptional level; the better the growth of the strains on the oligosaccharides, the higher was the expression of glycosidase genes related to the oligosaccharides. Our results suggested that the differences in the gene transcription levels led to intraspecies differences in the ability of the strains to metabolize oligosaccharides even when they belonged to the same subspecies. Discussion Future studies with more sample size could generalizable the conclusion to all B. animalis subsp. lactis strains, thus would lay the theoretical foundation for the utilization of the B. animalis subsp. lactis strain as probiotics and the development of synbiotic products.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Yongqing Ni
- School of Food Science and Technology, Shihezi University, Shihezi, Xinjiang Province, China
| | - Yan Zhang
- School of Food Science and Technology, Shihezi University, Shihezi, Xinjiang Province, China
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Silva FCO, Malaisamy A, Cahú TB, de Araújo MIF, Soares PAG, Vieira AT, Dos Santos Correia MT. Polysaccharides from exudate gums of plants and interactions with the intestinal microbiota: A review of vegetal biopolymers and prediction of their prebiotic potential. Int J Biol Macromol 2024; 254:127715. [PMID: 37918599 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.127715] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2023] [Revised: 09/25/2023] [Accepted: 10/25/2023] [Indexed: 11/04/2023]
Abstract
Polysaccharides in plant-exuded gums are complex biopolymers consisting of a wide range of structural variability (linkages, monosaccharide composition, substituents, conformation, chain length and branching). The structural features of polysaccharides confer the ability to be exploited in different industrial sectors and applications involving biological systems. Moreover, these characteristics are attributed to a direct relationship in the process of polysaccharide enzymatic degradation by the fermentative action in the gut microbiota, through intrinsic interactions connecting bacterial metabolism and the production of various metabolites that are associated with regulatory effects on the host homeostasis system. Molecular docking analysis between bacterial target proteins and arabinogalactan-type polysaccharide obtained from gum arabic allowed the identification of intermolecular interactions provided bacterial enzymatic mechanism for the degradation of several arabinogalactan monosaccharide chains, as a model for the study and prediction of potential fermentable polysaccharide. This review discusses the main structural characteristics of polysaccharides from exudate gums of plants and their interactions with the intestinal microbiota.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Francisca Crislândia Oliveira Silva
- Department of Biochemistry, Biotechnology Laboratory (LaBioTec), Federal University of Pernambuco (UFPE), Av. Prof. Moraes Rego, 1235 - University City, CEP 50.670-901 Recife, PE, Brazil
| | - Arunkumar Malaisamy
- Transcription Regulation Group, International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (ICGEB), New Delhi 110067, India
| | - Thiago Barbosa Cahú
- Institute of Biophysics Carlos Chagas Filho, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), University City, CEP 21941-913 Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Maria Isabela Ferreira de Araújo
- Department of Biochemistry, Biotechnology Laboratory (LaBioTec), Federal University of Pernambuco (UFPE), Av. Prof. Moraes Rego, 1235 - University City, CEP 50.670-901 Recife, PE, Brazil
| | - Paulo Antônio Galindo Soares
- Department of Biochemistry, Biotechnology Laboratory (LaBioTec), Federal University of Pernambuco (UFPE), Av. Prof. Moraes Rego, 1235 - University City, CEP 50.670-901 Recife, PE, Brazil
| | - Angélica Thomaz Vieira
- Department of Biochemistry and Immunology, Laboratory of Microbiota and Immunomodulation (LMI), Federal University of Minas Gerais (UFMG), Antonio Carlos, 6627 - Pampulha, CEP 30.161-970 Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Maria Tereza Dos Santos Correia
- Department of Biochemistry, Glycoprotein Laboratory (BIOPROT), Federal University of Pernambuco (UFPE), Av. Prof. Moraes Rego, 1235 - University City, CEP 50.670-901 Recife, PE, Brazil.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Liu Y, Zhong W, Feng S, Tang Z, Zhang Y, Ai L, Xiong Z. Identification of new reference genes for colony counting by reverse-transcription quantitative PCR in Bifidobacterium animalis. J Dairy Sci 2023; 106:7477-7485. [PMID: 37641239 DOI: 10.3168/jds.2022-23000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2022] [Accepted: 05/12/2023] [Indexed: 08/31/2023]
Abstract
Bifidobacterium animalis, one of the predominant bacteria in the intestines of humans and other mammals, is widely added to dairy products. We employed RNA sequencing to analyze gene expression variance on a genome-wide scale and found stable reference genes (RG) in B. animalis. A total of 1,665 genes were identified by analyzing the data from the transcriptome under 4 different conditions, and 13 probable candidate RG with variation coefficient values <0.1 were validated using reverse-transcription quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR). The amplification efficiency of candidate RG were ranging from 94.16% to 126.25%. We integrated the analysis results of BestKeeper, geNorm, NormFinder, and RefFinder algorithms and revealed that rplD and atpA comprehensive ranked 1.68 and 2.82, respectively, which were more stable than traditional RG. Compared with plate count (1.58 × 106 cfu/mL), the concentrations of B. animalis AR668 by RT-qPCR using rplD, atpA, and 16S rRNA as RG were 2.27 × 106, 2.24 × 106, and 6.66 × 106 cfu/mL, respectively, after 10 h of fermentation in fermented skim milk. It suggested that rplD and atpA as RG can be accurate for colony counting of B. animalis. Our study provides the foundation for more accurate analysis of colony counting by RT-qPCR of B. animalis in dairy foods.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yaping Liu
- Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Food Microbiology, School of Health Science and Engineering, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai 200093, China
| | - Wanting Zhong
- Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Food Microbiology, School of Health Science and Engineering, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai 200093, China
| | - Shuo Feng
- Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Food Microbiology, School of Health Science and Engineering, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai 200093, China
| | - Ziteng Tang
- Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Food Microbiology, School of Health Science and Engineering, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai 200093, China
| | - Yingzhi Zhang
- Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Food Microbiology, School of Health Science and Engineering, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai 200093, China
| | - Lianzhong Ai
- Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Food Microbiology, School of Health Science and Engineering, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai 200093, China
| | - Zhiqiang Xiong
- Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Food Microbiology, School of Health Science and Engineering, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai 200093, China.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Killer J, Bunešová VN, Modráčková N, Vlková E, Pechar R, Šplíchal I. Lactulose in combination with soybean lecithin has a cryoprotective effect on probiotic taxa of bifidobacteria and Lactobacillaceae. Lett Appl Microbiol 2023; 76:6993074. [PMID: 36657381 DOI: 10.1093/lambio/ovad008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2022] [Revised: 01/05/2023] [Accepted: 01/18/2023] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Lactulose is commonly used in pharmacy for constipation and hepatic encephalopathy treatment. The prebiotic effect of lactulose is also often mentioned. However, its cryoprotective effect in combination with lecithin on the main representatives of probiotics has not been tested yet. The 12 taxa of bifidobacteria and Lactobacillaceae members were used for the purpose. These were mixed in a ratio of 1:1 with lactulose + lecithin (finally 5.0% and 1.25%, respectively; LL). The 25% glycerol (G+) solution and cultures themselves were applied as positive and negative controls, respectively. Bacterial suspensions were stored at a mild freezing temperature (-20°C) until the end of the experiment (210th day). The LL solution had a comparable (insignificant difference at the P-value = 0.05) cryoprotective effect as the positive control in five of six bifidobacteria and in three of six representatives of Lactobacillaceae. The better cryoprotective effect was revealed in other Lactobacillaceae. At the end of the experiment, the generally accepted therapeutic minimum (>107 Colony Forming Units/mL) was determined in LL solution in five bifidobacteria and four Lactobacillaceae strains. The presented results improve knowledge about long-term mild cryopreservation of the most commonly used probiotics and could contribute to developing new forms of (nutri)synbiotics.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jiří Killer
- Institute of Animal Physiology and Genetics of the Czech Academy of Sciences, v. v. i.; Vídeňská 1083, 142 20 Prague 4-Krč, Czech Republic.,Department of Microbiology, Nutrition and Dietetics, Faculty of Agrobiology, Food and Natural Resources, Czech University of Life Sciences, Kamýcká 129, 165 00 Prague 6-Suchdol, Czech Republic
| | - Věra Neužil Bunešová
- Department of Microbiology, Nutrition and Dietetics, Faculty of Agrobiology, Food and Natural Resources, Czech University of Life Sciences, Kamýcká 129, 165 00 Prague 6-Suchdol, Czech Republic
| | - Nikol Modráčková
- Department of Microbiology, Nutrition and Dietetics, Faculty of Agrobiology, Food and Natural Resources, Czech University of Life Sciences, Kamýcká 129, 165 00 Prague 6-Suchdol, Czech Republic
| | - Eva Vlková
- Department of Microbiology, Nutrition and Dietetics, Faculty of Agrobiology, Food and Natural Resources, Czech University of Life Sciences, Kamýcká 129, 165 00 Prague 6-Suchdol, Czech Republic
| | - Radko Pechar
- Department of Microbiology, Nutrition and Dietetics, Faculty of Agrobiology, Food and Natural Resources, Czech University of Life Sciences, Kamýcká 129, 165 00 Prague 6-Suchdol, Czech Republic.,Food Research Institute Prague, Radiová 1285/7, 102 00 Prague 10-Hostivař, Czech Republic
| | - Igor Šplíchal
- Laboratory of Gnotobiology, Institute of Microbiology of the Czech Academy of Sciences, 549 22 Nový Hrádek, Czech Republic
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Tingler M, Philipp M, Burkhalter MD. DNA Replication proteins in primary microcephaly syndromes. Biol Cell 2022; 114:143-159. [PMID: 35182397 DOI: 10.1111/boc.202100061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2021] [Revised: 01/28/2022] [Accepted: 01/31/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
SCOPE Improper expansion of neural stem and progenitor cells during brain development manifests in primary microcephaly. It is characterized by a reduced head circumference, which correlates with a reduction in brain size. This often corresponds to a general underdevelopment of the brain and entails cognitive, behavioral and motoric retardation. In the past decade significant research efforts have been undertaken to identify genes and the molecular mechanisms underlying microcephaly. One such gene set encompasses factors required for DNA replication. Intriguingly, a growing body of evidence indicates that a substantial number of these genes mediate faithful centrosome and cilium function in addition to their canonical function in genome duplication. Here, we summarize, which DNA replication factors are associated with microcephaly syndromes and to which extent they impact on centrosomes and cilia. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Melanie Tingler
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Pharmacogenomics, Section of Pharmacogenomics, Eberhard-Karls-University Tübingen, Tübingen, 72074, Germany
| | - Melanie Philipp
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Pharmacogenomics, Section of Pharmacogenomics, Eberhard-Karls-University Tübingen, Tübingen, 72074, Germany
| | - Martin D Burkhalter
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Pharmacogenomics, Section of Pharmacogenomics, Eberhard-Karls-University Tübingen, Tübingen, 72074, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Evaluation of Bacterial Diversity and Evolutionary Dynamics of Gut Bifidobacterium longum Isolates Obtained from Older Individuals in Hubei Province, China. Microbiol Spectr 2022; 10:e0144221. [PMID: 35044201 PMCID: PMC8768838 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.01442-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Bifidobacterium longum predominates in the human gut throughout the life span, from birth to old age, and could alter the intestinal microbial population and immune function in the elderly. We investigated the intestinal bacterial diversity in the elderly, and further evaluated the genetic diversity and population structure of B. longum. The results revealed a distinct difference in gut bacterial populations between the elderly from Xiangyang and its neighboring region, Enshi city. A total of 62 bifidobacterial strains were isolated, 30 of which were found to be B. longum. The multilocus sequence typing (MLST) analysis also revealed that 437 B. longum isolates from diverse regions worldwide, including the 30 isolated in this study, could be classified into 341 sequence types (STs). They could be further clustered into 10 clonal complexes and 127 singleton STs, indicating a highly genetic diversity among B. longum isolates. Two putative clone complexes (CCs) containing the isolates from Xiangyang were found to be geographically specific, and a 213-bp recombination fragment was detected. Phylogenetic trees divided these 437 isolates into three lineages, corresponding to the three subspecies of B. longum. It is noteworthy that two isolates from the elderly were identified to be B. longum subsp. suis, while the others were B. longum subsp. longum. Together, our study characterized the intestinal bacterial diversity and evolution of B. longum in the elderly, and it could contribute to further studies on the genotyping and discrimination of B. longum. IMPORTANCEBifidobacterium longum are common inhabitants of the human gut throughout the life span, and have been associated with health-promoting effects, yet little is known about the genotype profile and evolution of these isolates. Our study showed that there was significant difference in gut bacterial community and abundance of B. longum between the elderly from two neighboring cities. Furthermore, the possible geographically specific STs, CCs, and intraspecies recombination fragment were found among the B. longum isolates from elderly.
Collapse
|
7
|
Schöpping M, Gaspar P, Neves AR, Franzén CJ, Zeidan AA. Identifying the essential nutritional requirements of the probiotic bacteria Bifidobacterium animalis and Bifidobacterium longum through genome-scale modeling. NPJ Syst Biol Appl 2021; 7:47. [PMID: 34887435 PMCID: PMC8660834 DOI: 10.1038/s41540-021-00207-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2021] [Accepted: 11/03/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Although bifidobacteria are widely used as probiotics, their metabolism and physiology remain to be explored in depth. In this work, strain-specific genome-scale metabolic models were developed for two industrially and clinically relevant bifidobacteria, Bifidobacterium animalis subsp. lactis BB-12® and B. longum subsp. longum BB-46, and subjected to iterative cycles of manual curation and experimental validation. A constraint-based modeling framework was used to probe the metabolic landscape of the strains and identify their essential nutritional requirements. Both strains showed an absolute requirement for pantethine as a precursor for coenzyme A biosynthesis. Menaquinone-4 was found to be essential only for BB-46 growth, whereas nicotinic acid was only required by BB-12®. The model-generated insights were used to formulate a chemically defined medium that supports the growth of both strains to the same extent as a complex culture medium. Carbohydrate utilization profiles predicted by the models were experimentally validated. Furthermore, model predictions were quantitatively validated in the newly formulated medium in lab-scale batch fermentations. The models and the formulated medium represent valuable tools to further explore the metabolism and physiology of the two species, investigate the mechanisms underlying their health-promoting effects and guide the optimization of their industrial production processes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marie Schöpping
- Systems Biology, Discovery, Chr. Hansen A/S, 2970, Hørsholm, Denmark
- Division of Industrial Biotechnology, Department of Biology and Biological Engineering, Chalmers University of Technology, 41296, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Paula Gaspar
- Systems Biology, Discovery, Chr. Hansen A/S, 2970, Hørsholm, Denmark
| | - Ana Rute Neves
- Systems Biology, Discovery, Chr. Hansen A/S, 2970, Hørsholm, Denmark
- Arla Foods Ingredients Group P/S, 6920, Videbæk, Denmark
| | - Carl Johan Franzén
- Division of Industrial Biotechnology, Department of Biology and Biological Engineering, Chalmers University of Technology, 41296, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Ahmad A Zeidan
- Systems Biology, Discovery, Chr. Hansen A/S, 2970, Hørsholm, Denmark.
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Liu Y, Cai J, Zhang F. Functional comparison of breast milk, cow milk and goat milk based on changes in the intestinal flora of mice. Lebensm Wiss Technol 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.lwt.2021.111976] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
|
9
|
Mohar Lorbeg P, Golob M, Kramer M, Treven P, Bogovič Matijašić B. Evaluation of Dietary Supplements Containing Viable Bacteria by Cultivation/MALDI-TOF Mass Spectrometry and PCR Identification. Front Microbiol 2021; 12:700138. [PMID: 34349743 PMCID: PMC8326757 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.700138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2021] [Accepted: 06/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The insufficient quality of products containing beneficial live bacteria in terms of content and viability of labelled microorganisms is an often-reported problem. The aim of this work was to evaluate the quality of dietary supplements containing viable bacteria available in Slovenian pharmacies using plate counting, matrix-assisted laser desorption ionisation time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) and species- or subspecies-specific PCR with DNA isolated from consortia of viable bacteria, from individual isolates, or directly from the products. Twelve percent of the products (3 of 26) contained insufficient numbers of viable bacteria. Eighty-three of the labelled species (111 in total) were confirmed by PCR with DNA from the product; 74% of these were confirmed by PCR with DNA from viable consortium, and 65% of these were confirmed by MALDI-TOF MS analysis of colonies. Certain species in multi-strain products were confirmed by PCR with DNA from viable consortia but not by MALDI-TOF MS, suggesting that the number of isolates examined (three per labelled strain) was too low. With the exception of Lacticaseibacillus casei and closely related species (Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus and Lacticaseibacillus zeae), PCR and MALDI-TOF identification results agreed for 99% of the isolates examined, although several MALDI-TOF results had lower score values (1.700-1.999), indicating that the species identification was not reliable. The species L. zeae, which appeared in 20 matches of the Biotyper analysis, was identified as L. rhamnosus by PCR. The MALDI-TOF MS analysis was also unsuccessful in detecting Lactobacillus acidophilus La-5 and Bacillus coagulans due to missing peaks and unreliable identification, respectively. Mislabelling was detected by both methods for two putative L. casei strains that turned out to belong to the species Lacticaseibacillus paracasei. PCR remains more successful in subspecies-level identification as long as the database of MALDI-TOF MS spectra is not expanded by building in-house databases. The lack of positive PCR results with viable consortia or colonies, but positive PCR results with DNA isolated directly from the products observed in 10% (11/112) of the labelled strains, suggests the presence of non-culturable bacteria in the products. MALDI-TOF MS is a faster and simpler alternative to PCR identification, provided that a sufficient number of colonies are examined. Generation of in-house library may further improve the identification accuracy at the species and sub-species level.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Petra Mohar Lorbeg
- Department of Animal Science, Biotechnical Faculty, Institute of Dairy Science and Probiotics, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Majda Golob
- Veterinary Faculty, Institute of Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Mateja Kramer
- Global Drug Development, Technical Research & Development, Biologics and Cell & Gene Therapy, Novartis, Global Project Management Office, Lek Pharmaceuticals d.d., Mengeš, Slovenia
| | - Primož Treven
- Department of Animal Science, Biotechnical Faculty, Institute of Dairy Science and Probiotics, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Bojana Bogovič Matijašić
- Department of Animal Science, Biotechnical Faculty, Institute of Dairy Science and Probiotics, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Diversity of the type I-U CRISPR-Cas system in Bifidobacterium. Arch Microbiol 2021; 203:3235-3243. [PMID: 33837440 DOI: 10.1007/s00203-021-02310-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2020] [Revised: 03/17/2021] [Accepted: 03/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The CRISPR-Cas system is widely distributed in prokaryotes and plays an important role in the adaptive immunity of bacteria and archaea. Bifidobacterium is an important component of the intestinal flora of humans and animals, and some species of this bacterium can be employed as food additives. However, the Bifidobacterium CRISPR-Cas system has not been fully elucidated to date. In this study, the genomes of 110 strains of Bifidobacterium were employed to research the diversity of the type I-U system. The 110 strains were divided into five groups according to the genes adjacent to the CRISPR locus, including group A, B, C, D and E. Strains in the intergroup had unique species classifications and MLST types. An evolutionary tree was constructed based on the conserved cas4/cas1 fusion gene. The results showed that group A had a different evolutionary branch compared with the other groups and had a relatively low spacer number. Notably, group B, C and E had exhibited ABC transporter regulators in the genes adjacent to the CRISPR locus. ABC transporters play important roles in the exocytosis of many antibiotics and are involved in horizontal gene transfer. This mechanism may have promoted the evolution of Bifidobacterium and the horizontal gene transfer of the type I-U system, which may have promoted the generation of system diversity. In summary, our results help to elucidate the role of the type I-U system in the evolution of Bifidobacterium.
Collapse
|
11
|
Splichalova A, Donovan SM, Tlaskalova-Hogenova H, Stranak Z, Splichalova Z, Splichal I. Monoassociation of Preterm Germ-Free Piglets with Bifidobacterium animalis Subsp. lactis BB-12 and Its Impact on Infection with Salmonella Typhimurium. Biomedicines 2021; 9:biomedicines9020183. [PMID: 33670419 PMCID: PMC7917597 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines9020183] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2020] [Revised: 02/05/2021] [Accepted: 02/06/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Preterm germ-free piglets were monoassociated with probiotic Bifidobacterium animalis subsp. lactis BB-12 (BB12) to verify its safety and to investigate possible protection against subsequent infection with Salmonella Typhimurium strain LT2 (LT2). Clinical signs of salmonellosis, bacterial colonization in the intestine, bacterial translocation to mesenteric lymph nodes (MLN), blood, liver, spleen, and lungs, histopathological changes in the ileum, claudin-1 and occludin mRNA expression in the ileum and colon, intestinal and plasma concentrations of IL-8, TNF-α, and IL-10 were evaluated. Both BB12 and LT2 colonized the intestine of the monoassociated piglets. BB12 did not translocate in the BB12-monoassociated piglets. BB12 was detected in some cases in the MLN of piglets, consequently infected with LT2, but reduced LT2 counts in the ileum and liver of these piglets. LT2 damaged the luminal structure of the ileum, but a previous association with BB12 mildly alleviated these changes. LT2 infection upregulated claudin-1 mRNA in the ileum and colon and downregulated occludin mRNA in the colon. Infection with LT2 increased levels of IL-8, TNF-α, and IL-10 in the intestine and plasma, and BB12 mildly downregulated them compared to LT2 alone. Despite reductions in bacterial translocation and inflammatory cytokines, clinical signs of LT2 infection were not significantly affected by the probiotic BB12. Thus, we hypothesize that multistrain bacterial colonization of preterm gnotobiotic piglets may be needed to enhance the protective effect against the infection with S. Typhimurium LT2.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alla Splichalova
- Laboratory of Gnotobiology, Institute of Microbiology, Czech Academy of Sciences, 549 22 Novy Hradek, Czech Republic; (A.S.); (Z.S.)
| | - Sharon M. Donovan
- Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, University of Illinois, Urbana, IL 61801, USA;
| | - Helena Tlaskalova-Hogenova
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Institute of Microbiology, Czech Academy of Sciences, 142 20 Prague, Czech Republic;
| | - Zbynek Stranak
- Department of Neonatology, Institute for the Care of Mother and Child, 147 00 Prague, Czech Republic;
| | - Zdislava Splichalova
- Laboratory of Gnotobiology, Institute of Microbiology, Czech Academy of Sciences, 549 22 Novy Hradek, Czech Republic; (A.S.); (Z.S.)
| | - Igor Splichal
- Laboratory of Gnotobiology, Institute of Microbiology, Czech Academy of Sciences, 549 22 Novy Hradek, Czech Republic; (A.S.); (Z.S.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +420-491-418-539
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Zidan D, Sabran MR, Ramli NS, Shafie SR, Fikry M. Prebiotic properties of xylooligosaccharide extracted from sugarcane wastes (pith and rind): a comparative study. Int J Food Sci Technol 2021. [DOI: 10.1111/ijfs.14956] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Dina Zidan
- Department of Nutrition Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences Universiti Putra Malaysia Serdang Selangor43400 UPMMalaysia
| | - Mohd Redzwan Sabran
- Department of Nutrition Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences Universiti Putra Malaysia Serdang Selangor43400 UPMMalaysia
| | - Nurul Shazini Ramli
- Department of Food Science Faculty of Food Science and Technology Universiti Putra Malaysia Serdang Selangor43400 UPMMalaysia
| | - Siti Raihanah Shafie
- Department of Nutrition Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences Universiti Putra Malaysia Serdang Selangor43400 UPMMalaysia
| | - Mohammad Fikry
- Department of Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering Faculty of Agriculture Benha University Toukh Qalyoubia Governorate13736Egypt
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Marsaux B, Van den Abbeele P, Ghyselinck J, Prioult G, Marzorati M, Bogićević B. Synbiotic Effect of Bifidobacterium lactis CNCM I-3446 and Bovine Milk-Derived Oligosaccharides on Infant Gut Microbiota. Nutrients 2020; 12:E2268. [PMID: 32751149 PMCID: PMC7468906 DOI: 10.3390/nu12082268] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2020] [Revised: 07/27/2020] [Accepted: 07/27/2020] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND This study evaluated the impact of Bifidobacterium animalis ssp. lactis CNCM I-3446, Bovine Milk-derived OligoSaccharides (BMOS) and their combination on infant gut microbiota in vitro. In addition, a novel strategy consisting of preculturing B. lactis with BMOS to further enhance their potential synbiotic effects was assessed. METHOD Short-term fecal batch fermentations (48 h) were used to assess the microbial composition and activity modulated by BMOS alone, B. lactis grown on BMOS or dextrose alone, or their combinations on different three-month-old infant microbiota. RESULTS BMOS alone significantly induced acetate and lactate production (leading to pH decrease) and stimulated bifidobacterial growth in 10 donors. A further in-depth study on two different donors proved B. lactis ability to colonize the infant microbiota, regardless of the competitiveness of the environment. BMOS further enhanced this engraftment, suggesting a strong synbiotic effect. This was also observed at the microbiota activity level, especially in a donor containing low initial levels of bifidobacteria. In this donor, preculturing B. lactis with BMOS strengthened further the early modulation of microbiota activity observed after 6 h. CONCLUSION This study demonstrated the strong synbiotic effect of BMOS and B. lactis on the infant gut microbiota, and suggests a strategy to improve its effectiveness in an otherwise low-Bifidobacterium microbiota.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Benoît Marsaux
- Center for Microbial Ecology and Technology (CMET), Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, 9000 Ghent, Belgium; (B.M.); (M.M.)
- ProDigest BV, Technologiepark 82, 9052 Ghent, Belgium; (P.V.d.A.); (J.G.)
| | | | - Jonas Ghyselinck
- ProDigest BV, Technologiepark 82, 9052 Ghent, Belgium; (P.V.d.A.); (J.G.)
| | - Guénolée Prioult
- Nestlé Research and Development Konolfingen, Nestléstrasse 3, 3510 Konolfingen, Switzerland;
| | - Massimo Marzorati
- Center for Microbial Ecology and Technology (CMET), Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, 9000 Ghent, Belgium; (B.M.); (M.M.)
- ProDigest BV, Technologiepark 82, 9052 Ghent, Belgium; (P.V.d.A.); (J.G.)
| | | |
Collapse
|
14
|
Bifidobacterium β-Glucosidase Activity and Fermentation of Dietary Plant Glucosides Is Species and Strain Specific. Microorganisms 2020; 8:microorganisms8060839. [PMID: 32503148 PMCID: PMC7355683 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms8060839] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2020] [Revised: 05/28/2020] [Accepted: 06/01/2020] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Dietary plant glucosides are phytochemicals whose bioactivity and bioavailability can be modified by glucoside hydrolase activity of intestinal microbiota through the release of acylglycones. Bifidobacteria are gut commensals whose genomic potential indicates host-adaption as they possess a diverse set of glycosyl hydrolases giving access to a variety of dietary glycans. We hypothesized bifidobacteria with β-glucosidase activity could use plant glucosides as fermentation substrate and tested 115 strains assigned to eight different species and from different hosts for their potential to express β-glucosidases and ability to grow in the presence of esculin, amygdalin, and arbutin. Concurrently, the antibacterial activity of arbutin and its acylglycone hydroquinone was investigated. Beta-glucosidase activity of bifidobacteria was species specific and most prevalent in species occurring in human adults and animal hosts. Utilization and fermentation profiles of plant glucosides differed between strains and might provide a competitive benefit enabling the intestinal use of dietary plant glucosides as energy sources. Bifidobacterial β-glucosidase activity can increase the bioactivity of plant glucosides through the release of acylglycone.
Collapse
|
15
|
Intestinal microbes derived butyrate is related to the immunomodulatory activities of Dendrobium officinale polysaccharide. Int J Biol Macromol 2020; 149:717-723. [PMID: 32014483 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2020.01.305] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2019] [Revised: 01/29/2020] [Accepted: 01/31/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Although immunomodulatory activities of Dendrobium officinale polysaccharide has been investigated for many years, yet the potential contribution of its metabolite derived from intestinal microbes on immunoregulation effect has not been reported. In this study, polysaccharide DOW-5B with average molecular weight of 39.4 kDa was isolated from the stem of Dendrobium officinale Kimura et Migo. The carbohydrate content was 91.97% and no protein was detected. The monosaccharide analysis showed this polysaccharide was composed of glucuronic acid and glucose at a molar ratio (M/G) of 1.2:19.4. Animal test indicated DOW-5B increased the diversity of gut microbiota on mice. Beneficial microbes such as Ruminococcus, Eubacterium, Clostridium, Bifidobacterium, Parabacteroides and Akkermansiamuciniphila increased while harmful bacteria in Proteobacteria decreased. Surprisingly, DOW-5B promoted gut microbes to generate more butyrate and mainly produced by Parabacteroides_sp_HGS0025. Further, we found the health of large intestine as well as immunity response of mice was improved. In addition, Parabacteroides_sp_HGS0025 positively correlated with butyrate, IgM, IL-10, and TNF-α products in intestine and mice blood, respectively. The data suggested that Dendrobium officinale polysaccharide has function on immunity may be mediated by butyrate. It adds new evidence to support the basis of how herbal polysaccharides affect immunity.
Collapse
|
16
|
Prebiotic potential of natural gums and starch for bifidobacteria of variable origins. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bcdf.2019.100199] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
|
17
|
Modrackova N, Bunesova V, Vlkova E, Musilova S, Mrvikova I, Bronsky J, Copova I, Hradsky O, Nevoral J. Enteral Nutrition as a Growth Medium for Cultivable Commensal Bacteria and Its Effect on Their Quantity in the Stool of Children with Crohn's Disease. J Med Food 2019; 22:810-816. [PMID: 31313967 DOI: 10.1089/jmf.2019.0021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Current studies indicate a link between the intake of exclusive enteral nutrition (EEN) and the induction of complex changes in the intestinal microbiota, as well as the clinical improvement of Crohn's disease (CD). The first aim of this study was to test the ability of various commensal bacterial strains (n = 19) such as bifidobacteria, lactobacilli, and Escherichia coli to grow on three different polymeric EN in vitro. Tested EN formulas were found to be suitable growth media for tested commensals. Furthermore, the counts of these bacteria and total counts of anaerobic bacteria in the fecal samples of children with CD (n = 15) before and after 6 weeks of EEN diet administration were determined using cultivation on selective media. The counts of cultivable commensal bacteria in the fecal samples of CD children were not significantly affected by EEN. However, tested bacteria showed some individual shifts in counts before and after EEN therapy. Moreover, cultured bifidobacteria were found to be in reduced counts in CD children. Therefore, the application of bifidogenic prebiotic compounds to EN for CD patients might be considered.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nikol Modrackova
- 1Department of Microbiology, Nutrition and Dietetics, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Prague, Czechia
| | - Vera Bunesova
- 1Department of Microbiology, Nutrition and Dietetics, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Prague, Czechia
| | - Eva Vlkova
- 1Department of Microbiology, Nutrition and Dietetics, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Prague, Czechia
| | - Sarka Musilova
- 1Department of Microbiology, Nutrition and Dietetics, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Prague, Czechia
| | - Iva Mrvikova
- 1Department of Microbiology, Nutrition and Dietetics, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Prague, Czechia
| | - Jiri Bronsky
- 2Department of Paediatrics, University Hospital Motol and Second Faculty of Medicine, Charles University in Prague, Prague, Czechia
| | - Ivana Copova
- 2Department of Paediatrics, University Hospital Motol and Second Faculty of Medicine, Charles University in Prague, Prague, Czechia
| | - Ondrej Hradsky
- 2Department of Paediatrics, University Hospital Motol and Second Faculty of Medicine, Charles University in Prague, Prague, Czechia
| | - Jiri Nevoral
- 2Department of Paediatrics, University Hospital Motol and Second Faculty of Medicine, Charles University in Prague, Prague, Czechia
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Szajnar K, Znamirowska A, Kalicka D. Effects of various magnesium salts for the production of milk fermented by Bifidobacterium animalis ssp. lactis Bb-12. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF FOOD PROPERTIES 2019. [DOI: 10.1080/10942912.2019.1628779] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Katarzyna Szajnar
- Department of Dairy Technology, University of Rzeszow, Rzeszow, Poland
| | - Agata Znamirowska
- Department of Dairy Technology, University of Rzeszow, Rzeszow, Poland
| | - Dorota Kalicka
- Department of Dairy Technology, University of Rzeszow, Rzeszow, Poland
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Dissecting the Evolutionary Development of the Species Bifidobacterium animalis through Comparative Genomics Analyses. Appl Environ Microbiol 2019; 85:AEM.02806-18. [PMID: 30709821 DOI: 10.1128/aem.02806-18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2018] [Accepted: 01/28/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Bifidobacteria are members of the gut microbiota of animals, including mammals, birds, and social insects. In this study, we analyzed and determined the pangenome of Bifidobacterium animalis species, encompassing B. animalis subsp. animalis and the B. animalis subsp. lactis taxon, which is one of the most intensely exploited probiotic bifidobacterial species. In order to reveal differences within the B. animalis species, detailed comparative genomics and phylogenomics analyses were performed, indicating that these two subspecies recently arose through divergent evolutionary events. A subspecies-specific core genome was identified for both B. animalis subspecies, revealing the existence of subspecies-defining genes involved in carbohydrate metabolism. Notably, these in silico analyses coupled with carbohydrate profiling assays suggest genetic adaptations toward a distinct glycan milieu for each member of the B. animalis subspecies, resulting in a divergent evolutionary development of the two subspecies.IMPORTANCE The majority of characterized B. animalis strains have been isolated from human fecal samples. In order to explore genome variability within this species, we isolated 15 novel strains from the gastrointestinal tracts of different animals, including mammals and birds. The present study allowed us to reconstruct the pangenome of this taxon, including the genome contents of 56 B. animalis strains. Through careful assessment of subspecies-specific core genes of the B. animalis subsp. animalis/lactis taxon, we identified genes encoding enzymes involved in carbohydrate transport and metabolism, while unveiling specific gene acquisition and loss events that caused the evolutionary emergence of these two subspecies.
Collapse
|
20
|
Hernández-Rodríguez D, Vásquez-Aguilar AA, Serio-Silva JC, Rebollar EA, Azaola-Espinosa A. Molecular detection of Bifidobacterium spp. in faeces of black howler monkeys (Alouatta pigra). J Med Primatol 2018; 48:99-105. [PMID: 30520095 DOI: 10.1111/jmp.12395] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2018] [Revised: 10/31/2018] [Accepted: 11/09/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Bifidobacterium genus are considered to be beneficial bacteria for their hosts; however, knowledge about the specific species that are part of the gut microbiome of howler monkeys is scarce. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a useful technique for the identification of non-cultivable or difficult to grow bacterial species. With the goal of detecting species of the genus Bifidobacterium in black howler monkeys, we used PCR on DNA derived from faecal samples. METHODS We collected and extracted DNA from 40 faecal samples. Using specific primers, we performed PCR and nested PCR to detect members of the Bifidobacterium genus and a subset of species: Bifidobacterium adolescentis, Bifidobacterium bifidum, Bifidobacterium infantis, Bifidobacterium longum and Bifidobacterium animalis subsp. animalis. RESULTS 97.5% (39/40) of the samples were positive for Bifidobacterium spp. We found B longum in 100% of the analysed samples. CONCLUSIONS This is the first report of B longum in black howler monkey faeces.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dolores Hernández-Rodríguez
- Doctorado en Ciencias Agropecuarias, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana-Xochimilco, Coyoacán, CDMX, México.,Instituto de Ecología, A.C. Red de Biología y Conservación de Vertebrados, Xalapa, Veracruz, México
| | | | - Juan Carlos Serio-Silva
- Instituto de Ecología, A.C. Red de Biología y Conservación de Vertebrados, Xalapa, Veracruz, México
| | - Eria Alaide Rebollar
- Centro de Ciencias Genómicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Cuernavaca, Morelos, México
| | - Alejandro Azaola-Espinosa
- Sistemas Biológicos, Laboratorio de Biotecnología, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana-Xochimilco, Coyoacán, CDMX, México
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Pechar R, Killer J, Mekadim C, Geigerová M, Rada V. Classification of Culturable Bifidobacterial Population from Colonic Samples of Wild Pigs (Sus scrofa) Based on Three Molecular Genetic Methods. Curr Microbiol 2017; 74:1324-1331. [PMID: 28756573 DOI: 10.1007/s00284-017-1320-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2017] [Accepted: 07/25/2017] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Occurrence of bifidobacteria, known as health-promoting probiotic microorganisms, in the digestive tract of wild pigs (Sus scrofa) has not been examined yet. One hundred forty-nine fructose-6-phosphate phosphoketolase positive bacterial strains were isolated from colonic content of twenty-two individuals of wild pigs originated from four localities in the Czechia. Based on PCR-DGGE technique targeting the variable V3 region of the 16S rRNA genes, strains were initially differentiated into four groups represented by: (i) probably a new Bifidobacterium species (89 strains), (ii) B. boum/B. thermophilum/B. thermacidophilum subsp. porcinum/B. thermacidophilum subsp. thermacidophilum (sub)species (49 strains), (iii) Pseudoscardovia suis (7 strains), and (iv) B. pseudolongum subsp. globosum/B. pseudolongum subsp. pseudolongum (4 strains), respectively. Given the fact that DGGE technique did not allow to differentiate the representatives of thermophilic bifidobacteria and B. pseudolongum subspecies, strains were further classified by the 16S rRNA and thrS gene sequences. Primers targeting the variable regions of the latter gene were designed to be applicable in identification and phylogeny of Bifidobacteriaceae family. The 16S rRNA-derived phylogenetic study classified members of the first group into five subgroups in a separated cluster of thermophilic bifidobacteria. Comparable results were obtained by the thrS-derived phylogenetic analysis. Remarkably, variability among thrS sequences was higher compared with 16S rRNA gene sequences. Overall, molecular genetic techniques application allowed to identify a new Bifidobacterium phylotype which is predominant in the digestive tract of examined wild pigs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Radko Pechar
- Department of Microbiology, Nutrition and Dietetics, Faculty of Agrobiology, Food and Natural Resources, Czech University of Life Sciences, Kamýcká 129, Suchdol, 165 00, Prague 6, Czech Republic.,Food Research Institute Prague, Radiová 1285/7, Hostivař, 102 00, Prague 10, Czech Republic
| | - Jiří Killer
- Department of Microbiology, Nutrition and Dietetics, Faculty of Agrobiology, Food and Natural Resources, Czech University of Life Sciences, Kamýcká 129, Suchdol, 165 00, Prague 6, Czech Republic. .,Institute of Animal Physiology and Genetics v.v.i, Czech Academy of Sciences, Vídeňská 1083, Krč, 142 20, Prague 4, Czech Republic.
| | - Chahrazed Mekadim
- Department of Microbiology, Nutrition and Dietetics, Faculty of Agrobiology, Food and Natural Resources, Czech University of Life Sciences, Kamýcká 129, Suchdol, 165 00, Prague 6, Czech Republic
| | - Martina Geigerová
- Department of Microbiology, Nutrition and Dietetics, Faculty of Agrobiology, Food and Natural Resources, Czech University of Life Sciences, Kamýcká 129, Suchdol, 165 00, Prague 6, Czech Republic
| | - Vojtěch Rada
- Department of Microbiology, Nutrition and Dietetics, Faculty of Agrobiology, Food and Natural Resources, Czech University of Life Sciences, Kamýcká 129, Suchdol, 165 00, Prague 6, Czech Republic
| |
Collapse
|