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Erofeeva MN, Alekseeva GS, Kim MD, Sorokin PA, Naidenko SV. Inbreeding Coefficient and Distance in MHC Genes of Parents as Predictors of Reproductive Success in Domestic Cat. Animals (Basel) 2022; 12:ani12020165. [PMID: 35049788 PMCID: PMC8772569 DOI: 10.3390/ani12020165] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2021] [Revised: 01/04/2022] [Accepted: 01/07/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Inbreeding and low diversity in MHC (major histocompatibility complex) genes can have a significant impact on the survival and quality of offspring in mammals. At the same time, a decrease in genetic diversity can be disastrous for animals at individual and species level. For felines, studies of the effects of inbreeding and low variety in MHC genes are conducted on populations with a low number of animals, where there is a high probability of a shortage of available partners, and, accordingly, their choice. The use of model species, especially domestic cats, allows us to identify the main consequences of inbreeding and the lack of a choice of partners for future offspring. The survival of offspring in a domestic cat is primarily affected by the degree of similarity/difference in the genes of the parents’ MHC. Parents with the maximum distance in MHC genes have a larger proportion of surviving kittens, and this effect is most pronounced immediately after birth. In parents with the minimum distance in MHC genes, a significant percentage of kittens are either stillborn or die on the first day after birth. However, inbreeding and the similarity of parents in MHC genes in domestic cats did not affect the body mass of kittens. Abstract Inbreeding and low diversity in MHC genes are considered to have a negative effect on reproductive success in animals. This study presents an analysis of the number and body mass of offspring in domestic cat, depending on the inbreeding coefficient and the degree of similarity in MHC genes of class I and II in parents. Inbred partners had a lower number of live kittens at birth than outbred ones. At the same time, the inbreeding coefficient did not affect the litter size and the number of offspring who survived until the period of transition to solid food. The most significant predictor for the number of surviving offspring was the degree of parental similarity in MHC genes: the parents with the maximum distance in MHC genes had more survived kittens. Moreover, this effect was most pronounced immediately after birth. A significant percentage of kittens from parents with a minimum distance in MHC genes were either stillborn or died on the first day after birth. By the age of transition to solid food, this effect is no longer so pronounced. Furthermore, neither the inbreeding coefficient nor the distance in MHC genes of parents had any effect on the body mass of kittens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariya N. Erofeeva
- A.N. Severtsov Institute of Ecology and Evolution, Russian Academy of Sciences, Leninsky pr. 33, 119071 Moscow, Russia; (G.S.A.); (P.A.S.); (S.V.N.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Galina S. Alekseeva
- A.N. Severtsov Institute of Ecology and Evolution, Russian Academy of Sciences, Leninsky pr. 33, 119071 Moscow, Russia; (G.S.A.); (P.A.S.); (S.V.N.)
| | - Mariya D. Kim
- Department of Zoology, Institute of Zootechnics and Biology, Moscow Timiryazev Agricultural Academy, Russian State Agrarian University, Timiryazevskaya Str. 49, 127550 Moscow, Russia;
| | - Pavel A. Sorokin
- A.N. Severtsov Institute of Ecology and Evolution, Russian Academy of Sciences, Leninsky pr. 33, 119071 Moscow, Russia; (G.S.A.); (P.A.S.); (S.V.N.)
| | - Sergey V. Naidenko
- A.N. Severtsov Institute of Ecology and Evolution, Russian Academy of Sciences, Leninsky pr. 33, 119071 Moscow, Russia; (G.S.A.); (P.A.S.); (S.V.N.)
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Firman RC. Of mice and women: advances in mammalian sperm competition with a focus on the female perspective. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2020; 375:20200082. [PMID: 33070720 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2020.0082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Although initially lagging behind discoveries being made in other taxa, mammalian sperm competition is now a productive and advancing field of research. Sperm competition in mammals is not merely a 'sprint-race' between the gametes of rival males, but rather a race over hurdles; those hurdles being the anatomical and physiological barriers provided by the female reproductive tract, as well as the egg and its vestments. With this in mind, in this review, I discuss progress in the field while focusing on the female perspective. I highlight ways by which sperm competition can have positive effects on female reproductive success and discuss how competitive outcomes are not only owing to dynamics between the ejaculates of rival males, but also attributable to mechanisms by which female mammals bias paternity toward favourable sires. Drawing on examples across different species-from mice to humans-I provide an overview of the accumulated evidence which firmly establishes that sperm competition is a key selective force in the evolution of male traits and detail how females can respond to increased sperm competitiveness with increased egg resistance to fertilization. I also discuss evidence for facultative responses to the sperm competition environment observed within mammal species. Overall, this review identifies shortcomings in our understanding of the specific mechanisms by which female mammals 'select' sperm. More generally, this review demonstrates how, moving forward, mammals will continue to be effective animal models for studying both evolutionary and facultative responses to sperm competition. This article is part of the theme issue 'Fifty years of sperm competition'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Renée C Firman
- Centre for Evolutionary Biology, School of Biological Sciences, University of Western Australia, 35 Stirling Highway, Crawley, Western Australia 6009, Australia
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Erofeeva MN, Alekseeva GS, Sorokin PA, Naidenko SV. Effect of the Number of Mating Partners and Sperm Quality on Reproductive Success in the Domestic Cat (Felis catus). BIOL BULL+ 2019. [DOI: 10.1134/s1062359018070063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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Wu Q, Wen L, Chen J, Li D, Jiao X. Experimental evidence for the genetic benefits of female mate choice in the monandrous wolf spider Pardosa astrigera. Anim Behav 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2018.08.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
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Shaw RE, Banks SC, Peakall R. The impact of mating systems and dispersal on fine-scale genetic structure at maternally, paternally and biparentally inherited markers. Mol Ecol 2017; 27:66-82. [PMID: 29154412 DOI: 10.1111/mec.14433] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2017] [Revised: 11/06/2017] [Accepted: 11/08/2017] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
For decades, studies have focused on how dispersal and mating systems influence genetic structure across populations or social groups. However, we still lack a thorough understanding of how these processes and their interaction shape spatial genetic patterns over a finer scale (tens-hundreds of metres). Using uniparentally inherited markers may help answer these questions, yet their potential has not been fully explored. Here, we use individual-level simulations to investigate the effects of dispersal and mating system on fine-scale genetic structure at autosomal, mitochondrial and Y chromosome markers. Using genetic spatial autocorrelation analysis, we found that dispersal was the major driver of fine-scale genetic structure across maternally, paternally and biparentally inherited markers. However, when dispersal was restricted (mean distance = 100 m), variation in mating behaviour created strong differences in the comparative level of structure detected at maternally and paternally inherited markers. Promiscuity reduced spatial genetic structure at Y chromosome loci (relative to monogamy), whereas structure increased under polygyny. In contrast, mitochondrial and autosomal markers were robust to differences in the specific mating system, although genetic structure increased across all markers when reproductive success was skewed towards fewer individuals. Comparing males and females at Y chromosome vs. mitochondrial markers, respectively, revealed that some mating systems can generate similar patterns to those expected under sex-biased dispersal. This demonstrates the need for caution when inferring ecological and behavioural processes from genetic results. Comparing patterns between the sexes, across a range of marker types, may help us tease apart the processes shaping fine-scale genetic structure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robyn E Shaw
- Ecology and Evolution, Research School of Biology, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, Australia.,The Fenner School of Environment and Society, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, Australia
| | - Sam C Banks
- The Fenner School of Environment and Society, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, Australia
| | - Rod Peakall
- Ecology and Evolution, Research School of Biology, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, Australia
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Alfaro-Núñez A, Jensen MP, Abreu-Grobois FA. Does polyandry really pay off? The effects of multiple mating and number of fathers on morphological traits and survival in clutches of nesting green turtles at Tortuguero. PeerJ 2015; 3:e880. [PMID: 25870773 PMCID: PMC4393808 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.880] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2014] [Accepted: 03/17/2015] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite the long debate of whether or not multiple mating benefits the offspring, studies still show contradictory results. Multiple mating takes time and energy. Thus, if females fertilize their eggs with a single mating, why to mate more than once? We investigated and inferred paternal identity and number of sires in 12 clutches (240 hatchlings) of green turtles (Chelonia mydas) nests at Tortuguero, Costa Rica. Paternal alleles were inferred through comparison of maternal and hatchling genotypes, and indicated multiple paternity in at least 11 of the clutches (92%). The inferred average number of fathers was three (ranging from 1 to 5). Moreover, regression analyses were used to investigate for correlation of inferred clutch paternity with morphological traits of hatchlings fitness (emergence success, length, weight and crawling speed), the size of the mother, and an environmental variable (incubation temperature). We suggest and propose two different comparative approaches for evaluating morphological traits and clutch paternity, in order to infer greater offspring survival. First, clutches coded by the exact number of fathers and second by the exact paternal contribution (fathers who gives greater proportion of the offspring per nest). We found significant differences (P < 0.05) in clutches coded by the exact number of fathers for all morphological traits. A general tendency of higher values in offspring sired by two to three fathers was observed for the length and weight traits. However, emergence success and crawling speed showed different trends which unable us to reach any further conclusion. The second approach analysing the paternal contribution showed no significant difference (P > 0.05) for any of the traits. We conclude that multiple paternity does not provide any extra benefit in the morphological fitness traits or the survival of the offspring, when analysed following the proposed comparative statistical methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alonzo Alfaro-Núñez
- Center for GeoGenetics, Natural History Museum of Denmark, University of Copenhagen , Copenhagen , Denmark
| | - Michael P Jensen
- Marine Mammal and Turtle Division, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration , La Jolla, CA , United States
| | - F Alberto Abreu-Grobois
- Laboratorio de Genética, Unidad Académica Mazatlán, Instituto de Ciencias del Mar y Limnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México , México
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Sale MG, Kraaijeveld-Smit FJL, Arnould JPY. Multiple paternity in the swamp antechinus (Antechinus minimus). AUSTRALIAN MAMMALOGY 2013. [DOI: 10.1071/am12039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Multiple paternity within litters or broods occurs across a variety of taxa. In the present study, paternity patterns in the swamp antechinus (Antechinus minimus), a small carnivorous marsupial, were investigated using genetic analyses. Microsatellite data confirmed that, of 10 litters sampled from two habitats, a minimum of eight litters were sired by more than one male. Mating with multiple males may enable female swamp antechinuses to increase offspring viability and to ensure fertilisation.
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Slatyer RA, Mautz BS, Backwell PRY, Jennions MD. Estimating genetic benefits of polyandry from experimental studies: a meta-analysis. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2011; 87:1-33. [PMID: 21545390 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-185x.2011.00182.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 175] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Rachel A Slatyer
- Evolution, Ecology & Genetics, Research School of Biology, The Australian National University, Canberra, Australia
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House CM, Bleakley BH, Walling CA, Price TAR, Stamper CE, Moore AJ. The influence of maternal effects on indirect benefits associated with polyandry. Proc Biol Sci 2011; 278:1177-82. [PMID: 20926439 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2010.1676] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite numerous and diverse theoretical models for the indirect benefits of polyandry, empirical support is mixed. One reason for the difficulty in detecting indirect benefits of polyandry may be that these are subtle and are mediated by environmental effects, such as maternal effects. Maternal effects may be especially important if females allocate resources to their offspring depending on the characteristics of their mating partners. We test this hypothesis in the burying beetle Nicrophorus vespilloides, a species that provides extensive and direct parental care to offspring. We used a fully factorial design and mated females to one, two, three, four or five different males and manipulated conditions so that their offspring received reduced (12 h) or full (ca 72 h) maternal care. We found that average offspring fitness increased with full maternal care but there was no significant effect of polyandry or the interaction between the duration of maternal care and the level of polyandry on offspring fitness. Thus, although polyandry could provide a mechanism for biasing paternity towards high quality or compatible males, and variation in parental care matters, we found no evidence that female N. vespilloides gain indirect benefits by using parental care to bias the allocation of resources under different mating conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clarissa M House
- College of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Penryn, Cornwall TR10 9EZ, UK
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Determinants of female fecundity in a simultaneous hermaphrodite: the role of polyandry and food availability. Evol Ecol 2010. [DOI: 10.1007/s10682-010-9402-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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FISHER DO, BLOMBERG SP. Toe-bud clipping of juvenile small marsupials for ecological field research: No detectable negative effects on growth or survival. AUSTRAL ECOL 2009. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1442-9993.2009.01991.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Sale MG, Kraaijeveld-Smit F, Arnould J. Natal dispersal and social organization of the swamp antechinus (Antechinus minimus) in a high-density island population. CAN J ZOOL 2009. [DOI: 10.1139/z09-012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Radiotelemetry, mark–recapture trapping, and microsatellite analysis of genetic variation among three subpopulations were used to investigate the natal dispersal patterns, genetic structure, and social organization within a high-density island population of an insectivorous marsupial, the swamp antechinus ( Antechinus minimus (É. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1803)). Both demographic and genetic data indicated a high degree of philopatry for both sexes. Associated with high philopatry is low gene flow, often leading to high population genetic structuring. However, there was only weak evidence to support this; allele frequencies and genotype composition of one population tended to be different from the other two. Interestingly, timing of breeding of this subpopulation was delayed compared with the other two subpopulations. The philopatry of both sexes and the apparent lack of kin avoidance behaviour could lead to inbreeding. However, no apparent inbreeding effects were observed and offspring survival was high compared with mainland populations. The fact that male home-range size increased during the breeding season, overlapping with several females, and single females were found nesting with different males at the time of mating (and vice versa) indicates a promiscuous mating system. Potentially, this may reduce inbreeding to some extent. Alternatively, inbreeding may not be purposefully avoided, potentially leading to purging of detrimental alleles, thereby reducing their damaging effects on inbreeding.
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Affiliation(s)
- M. G. Sale
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Deakin University, Burwood, VIC 3125, Australia
- Animal ecology, IBL, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9516, 2300 RA, Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - F.J.L. Kraaijeveld-Smit
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Deakin University, Burwood, VIC 3125, Australia
- Animal ecology, IBL, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9516, 2300 RA, Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - J.P.Y. Arnould
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Deakin University, Burwood, VIC 3125, Australia
- Animal ecology, IBL, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9516, 2300 RA, Leiden, the Netherlands
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Foster WK, Taggart DA. Generation of sex ratio biases in the red-tailed phascogale (Phascogale calura). Reprod Fertil Dev 2008; 20:275-80. [PMID: 18255017 DOI: 10.1071/rd07031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2007] [Accepted: 11/12/2007] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Male semelparous dasyurid species are annual breeders that use a promiscuous mating system. These species have shown biases in litter sex ratios and, with females producing more young than they have available teats, this provides an opportunity for the manipulation of the sex ratio at birth. The sex ratio of embryos and pouch young, and the degree of embryonic overproduction, in red-tailed phascogales (Phascogale calura) was investigated to gain an understanding of the mechanism by which sex biases may be generated. The sex ratio of embryos did not differ from parity, but a male bias was observed in young attaching to teats. Females produced an average of 15.1 +/- 1.9 corpora lutea and 10.5 +/- 3.5 viable embryos, with no difference in fecundity observed with female age or weight. Because females only have eight teats, the overproduction of young, and male-biased attachment, was sufficient to explain the observed male bias in pouch young. No relationship was observed between maternal weight and sex ratio, but heavier females did tend to produce more ova. Meta-analysis of studies providing information on litter sex ratios in male semelparous dasyurid species did not show any consistent trend.
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Affiliation(s)
- W K Foster
- School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA 5005, Australia.
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LaDage LD, Gutzke WHN, Simmons RA, Ferkin MH. Multiple Mating Increases Fecundity, Fertility and Relative Clutch Mass in the Female Leopard Gecko (Eublepharis macularius). Ethology 2008. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1439-0310.2008.01495.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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Firman RC, Simmons LW. Polyandry, sperm competition, and reproductive success in mice. Behav Ecol 2008. [DOI: 10.1093/beheco/arm158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
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Boom and bust: a review of the physiology of the marsupial genus Antechinus. J Comp Physiol B 2008; 178:545-62. [DOI: 10.1007/s00360-007-0250-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2007] [Revised: 12/09/2007] [Accepted: 12/22/2007] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Jennions MD, Drayton JM, Brooks R, Hunt J. Do female black field crickets Teleogryllus commodus benefit from polyandry? J Evol Biol 2007; 20:1469-77. [PMID: 17584240 DOI: 10.1111/j.1420-9101.2007.01333.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Female insects that mate multiply tend to have increased lifetime fitness, apparently because of greater access to male-derived resources (e.g. sperm, nuptial gifts) that elevate fertility/fecundity. Experiments that standardize the number of matings per female also show that polyandry can improve aspects of offspring performance, most notably early embryo survival (egg hatching success). This improvement is widely attributed to genetic benefits which would arise if polyandrous females skew paternity to produce fitter offspring. In two separate experiments with field crickets (Teleogryllus commodus) polyandrous females (two, three or four mates) did not have higher egg hatching success than monandrous females (effect sizes: r = 0.03 and 0.08 for the respective experiments), which is consistent with our finding of no sire effect on hatching success. Polyandry also had no effect on post-hatching offspring survival. Polyandrous females' offspring took significantly longer to mature but their sons were not heavier and their daughters were actually significantly smaller than those of monandrous females. Finally, after controlling for relative male size, monandrous females' sons were more successful when directly competing for a mate.
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Affiliation(s)
- M D Jennions
- School of Botany and Zoology, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, Australia.
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Fisher DO, Double MC, Blomberg SP, Jennions MD, Cockburn A. Post-mating sexual selection increases lifetime fitness of polyandrous females in the wild. Nature 2006; 444:89-92. [PMID: 17080089 DOI: 10.1038/nature05206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 161] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2006] [Accepted: 09/06/2006] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Females often mate with several males before producing offspring. Field studies of vertebrates suggest, and laboratory experiments on invertebrates confirm, that even when males provide no material benefits, polyandry can enhance offspring survival. This enhancement is widely attributed to genetic benefits that arise whenever paternity is biased towards males that sire more viable offspring. Field studies suggest that post-mating sexual selection biases fertilization towards genetically more compatible males and one controlled experiment has shown that, when females mate with close kin, polyandry reduces the relative number of inbred offspring. Another potential genetic benefit of polyandry is that it increases offspring survival because males with more competitive ejaculates sire more viable offspring. Surprisingly, however, there is no unequivocal evidence for this process. Here, by experimentally assigning mates to females, we show that polyandry greatly increases offspring survival in the Australian marsupial Antechinus stuartii. DNA profiling shows that males that gain high paternity under sperm competition sire offspring that are more viable. This beneficial effect occurs in both the laboratory and the wild. Crucially, there are no confounding non-genetic maternal effects that could arise if polyandry increases female investment in a particular reproductive event because A. stuartii is effectively semelparous. Our results therefore show that polyandry improves female lifetime fitness in nature. The threefold increase in offspring survival is not negated by a decline in maternal lifespan and is too large to be offset by an equivalent decline in the reproductive performance of surviving offspring.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diana O Fisher
- School of Botany and Zoology, Australian National University, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory 0200, Australia.
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Simmons LW. The Evolution of Polyandry: Sperm Competition, Sperm Selection, and Offspring Viability. ANNUAL REVIEW OF ECOLOGY EVOLUTION AND SYSTEMATICS 2005. [DOI: 10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.36.102403.112501] [Citation(s) in RCA: 377] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Leigh W. Simmons
- Evolutionary Biology Research Group, School of Animal Biology, The University of Western Australia, Nedlands, Western Australia 6009, Australia;
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