1
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Rivera-Hernández IAE, Crane AL, Pollock MS, Ferrari MCO. Disturbance cues function as a background risk cue but not as an associative learning cue in tadpoles. Anim Cogn 2022; 25:881-889. [PMID: 35099624 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-022-01599-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2021] [Revised: 12/16/2021] [Accepted: 01/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/01/2022]
Abstract
Chemical information has an important role in the sensory ecology of aquatic species. For aquatic prey, chemical cues are a vital source of information related to predator avoidance and risk assessment. For instance, alarm cues are released by prey that have been injured by predators. In addition to providing accurate information about current risk, repeated exposure to alarm cues can elicit a fear response to novel stimuli (neophobia) in prey. Another source of chemical information is disturbance cues, released by prey that have been disturbed or harassed (but not injured) by a predator. While disturbance cues have received much less attention than alarm cues, they appear to be useful as an early warning signal of predation risk and have the potential to be used as a priming cue for learning. In this study, we used wood frog (Lithobates sylvaticus) tadpoles to test whether repeated exposure to disturbance cues during the embryonic stage can induce neophobic behaviour. Three weeks following repeated exposure to disturbance cues, tadpoles showed reduced activity when exposed to a novel odour, but they no longer displayed an antipredator response to disturbance cues. In a second experiment, we found that tadpoles failed to learn that a novel odour was dangerous following a pairing with disturbance cues, whereas alarm cues facilitated such learning. Our results add to the growing body of information about disturbance cues and provide evidence of their function as an embryonic risk cue but not as an associative learning cue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ita A E Rivera-Hernández
- Department of Biology, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada. .,Instituto de Neuroetología, Universidad Veracruzana, VER, Xalapa-Enríquez, Mexico.
| | - Adam L Crane
- Department of Biology, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada.,Department of Biology, Concordia University, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Michael S Pollock
- Biomedical Sciences, WCVM, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
| | - Maud C O Ferrari
- Biomedical Sciences, WCVM, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
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2
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Gebauer T, Gebauer R, Císař P, Tran HQ, Tomášek O, Podhorec P, Prokešová M, Rebl A, Stejskal V. The Effect of Different Feeding Applications on the Swimming Behaviour of Siberian Sturgeon: A Method for Improving Restocking Programmes. BIOLOGY 2021; 10:biology10111162. [PMID: 34827155 PMCID: PMC8614938 DOI: 10.3390/biology10111162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2021] [Revised: 11/05/2021] [Accepted: 11/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Restocking programmes of different fish species have been implemented worldwide. However, the survival of hatchery-reared fish after release to riverine ecosystems is at a very low level. One of the reasons for the high mortality rate of post-released fish is their modified swimming behaviour due to the hatchery rearing practice. To investigate one of the possible causes for modified swimming behaviour, Acipenser baerii larvae were exposed to surface- and bottom-feeding applications with day and night light regimes in a factorial design. We also analysed the effect of 5 and 10 days of starvation after different feeding applications on sturgeon swimming behaviour. The surface-feeding application was previously expected to promote the frequent Siberian sturgeon swim up to the mid- and top-water layers in our rearing facilities. However, our results indicated that the modified behaviour of the Siberian sturgeon in our study was caused by fish starvation and a possible predator-free environment rather than by the method of feed application or the day/night light regimes. These results may be used to improve the implementation of restocking programmes either through modified hatchery rearing practice or the training of foraging skills with predator stimuli.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tatyana Gebauer
- South Bohemian Research Center of Aquaculture and Biodiversity of Hydrocenoses, Faculty of Fisheries and Protection of Waters, Institute of Aquaculture and Protection of Waters, University of South Bohemia in Ceske Budejovice, Husova tř. 458/102, 370 05 České Budějovice, Czech Republic; (R.G.); (H.Q.T.); (O.T.); (P.P.); (M.P.); (V.S.)
- Institute of Genome Biology, Research Institute for Farm Animal Biology (FBN), Wilhelm-Stahl-Allee 2, 18196 Dummerstorf, Germany
- Correspondence: (T.G.); (A.R.)
| | - Radek Gebauer
- South Bohemian Research Center of Aquaculture and Biodiversity of Hydrocenoses, Faculty of Fisheries and Protection of Waters, Institute of Aquaculture and Protection of Waters, University of South Bohemia in Ceske Budejovice, Husova tř. 458/102, 370 05 České Budějovice, Czech Republic; (R.G.); (H.Q.T.); (O.T.); (P.P.); (M.P.); (V.S.)
| | - Petr Císař
- Laboratory of Signal and Image Processing, Institute of Complex Systems, Faculty of Fisheries and Protection of Waters, CENAKVA, University of South Bohemia in Ceske Budejovice, Zámek 136, 373 33 Nové Hrady, Czech Republic;
| | - Hung Quang Tran
- South Bohemian Research Center of Aquaculture and Biodiversity of Hydrocenoses, Faculty of Fisheries and Protection of Waters, Institute of Aquaculture and Protection of Waters, University of South Bohemia in Ceske Budejovice, Husova tř. 458/102, 370 05 České Budějovice, Czech Republic; (R.G.); (H.Q.T.); (O.T.); (P.P.); (M.P.); (V.S.)
| | - Ondřej Tomášek
- South Bohemian Research Center of Aquaculture and Biodiversity of Hydrocenoses, Faculty of Fisheries and Protection of Waters, Institute of Aquaculture and Protection of Waters, University of South Bohemia in Ceske Budejovice, Husova tř. 458/102, 370 05 České Budějovice, Czech Republic; (R.G.); (H.Q.T.); (O.T.); (P.P.); (M.P.); (V.S.)
| | - Peter Podhorec
- South Bohemian Research Center of Aquaculture and Biodiversity of Hydrocenoses, Faculty of Fisheries and Protection of Waters, Institute of Aquaculture and Protection of Waters, University of South Bohemia in Ceske Budejovice, Husova tř. 458/102, 370 05 České Budějovice, Czech Republic; (R.G.); (H.Q.T.); (O.T.); (P.P.); (M.P.); (V.S.)
| | - Markéta Prokešová
- South Bohemian Research Center of Aquaculture and Biodiversity of Hydrocenoses, Faculty of Fisheries and Protection of Waters, Institute of Aquaculture and Protection of Waters, University of South Bohemia in Ceske Budejovice, Husova tř. 458/102, 370 05 České Budějovice, Czech Republic; (R.G.); (H.Q.T.); (O.T.); (P.P.); (M.P.); (V.S.)
| | - Alexander Rebl
- Institute of Genome Biology, Research Institute for Farm Animal Biology (FBN), Wilhelm-Stahl-Allee 2, 18196 Dummerstorf, Germany
- Correspondence: (T.G.); (A.R.)
| | - Vlastimil Stejskal
- South Bohemian Research Center of Aquaculture and Biodiversity of Hydrocenoses, Faculty of Fisheries and Protection of Waters, Institute of Aquaculture and Protection of Waters, University of South Bohemia in Ceske Budejovice, Husova tř. 458/102, 370 05 České Budějovice, Czech Republic; (R.G.); (H.Q.T.); (O.T.); (P.P.); (M.P.); (V.S.)
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3
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Lucas J, Ros A, Gugele S, Dunst J, Geist J, Brinker A. The hunter and the hunted-A 3D analysis of predator-prey interactions between three-spined sticklebacks (Gasterosteus aculeatus) and larvae of different prey fishes. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0256427. [PMID: 34437615 PMCID: PMC8389440 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0256427] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2020] [Accepted: 08/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Predator-prey interactions play a key life history role, as animals cope with changing predation risk and opportunities to hunt prey. It has recently been shown that the hunting success of sticklebacks (Gasterosteus aculeatus) targeting fish larvae is dependent on both the size of the prey and the prior exposure of its species to stickleback predation. The purpose of the current study was to identify the behavioural predator-prey interactions explaining the success or failure of sticklebacks hunting larvae of three potential prey species [roach (Rutilus rutilus), perch (Perca fluviatilis) and whitefish (Coregonus wartmannii)] in a 3D environment. Trials were carried out for each prey species at four different size classes in a standardised laboratory setup and were recorded using a slow motion, stereo camera setup. 75 predator-prey interactions including both failed and successful hunts were subject to the analysis. 3D track analysis indicated that sticklebacks applied different strategies. Prey with less complex predator escape responses, i.e. whitefish larvae, were hunted using a direct but stealthy approach ending in a lunge, while the behaviourally more complex roach and perch larvae were hunted with a faster approach. A multivariate logistic regression identified that slow average speed and acceleration of the prey in the initial stages of the hunt increased the probability of stickleback success. Furthermore, predators adjusted their swimming direction more often when hunting larger whitefish compared to smaller whitefish. The results suggest that appropriate and adequately timed avoidance behaviours, which vary between prey species and ontogenetic stages, significantly increase the chances of outmanoeuvring and escaping stickleback predation. Small whitefish larvae can reach similar levels of swimming performance compared to older conspecifics, but display ineffective anti-predator behaviours, resulting in higher hunting success for sticklebacks. Thus, the development of appropriate anti-predator behaviours depending on size appears to be the crucial factor to escaping predation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jorrit Lucas
- Fisheries Research Station Baden-Wuerttemberg, LAZBW, Langenargen, Germany
- * E-mail:
| | - Albert Ros
- Fisheries Research Station Baden-Wuerttemberg, LAZBW, Langenargen, Germany
| | - Sarah Gugele
- Fisheries Research Station Baden-Wuerttemberg, LAZBW, Langenargen, Germany
| | - Julian Dunst
- Fisheries Research Station Baden-Wuerttemberg, LAZBW, Langenargen, Germany
| | - Juergen Geist
- Aquatic Systems Biology Unit, Department of Ecology and Ecosystem Management, Center of Life and Food Sciences Weihenstephan, Technical University of Munich, Freising, Germany
| | - Alexander Brinker
- Fisheries Research Station Baden-Wuerttemberg, LAZBW, Langenargen, Germany
- University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany
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4
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Sabal MC, Workman ML, Merz JE, Palkovacs EP. Shade affects magnitude and tactics of juvenile Chinook salmon antipredator behavior in the migration corridor. Oecologia 2021; 197:89-100. [PMID: 34355272 PMCID: PMC8445879 DOI: 10.1007/s00442-021-05008-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2020] [Accepted: 08/01/2021] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Environmental conditions strongly affect antipredator behaviors; however, it is less known how migrating prey adjust antipredator behavior in migration corridors, in part, because active migrants are difficult to observe and study. Migrants are vulnerable and encounter many predators in the corridor, and their propensity to travel towards their destination ties antipredator behavior with movement. We evaluated how environmental risk cues in the migration corridor including in-water habitat structure (present, absent) and overhead shade (sun, shade), and salmon origin (hatchery, wild) affected how juvenile Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) reacted to a live predator. We measured how salmon react to predation risk as the difference in time to swim downstream through a 9.1-m long field enclosure with or without a live predatory largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides). Shade significantly modified the reaction to the predator, and it did so in two ways. First, the magnitude of antipredator behavior was larger in shade compared to direct sun, which suggests salmon perceived shade to be a riskier environment than sun. Second, the escape tactic also varied; salmon slowed down to be cautious in shade and sped up in sun. Structure did not significantly affect behavior and hatchery and wild salmon behaved similarly. Our study suggests that environmental risk cues can shape the magnitude and tactics of how migrants react to predation risk and illustrates how these responses relate to movement with potential to scale up and affect migration patterns.
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Affiliation(s)
- Megan C Sabal
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California Santa Cruz, 130 McAllister Way, Santa Cruz, CA, 95060, USA.
| | - Michelle L Workman
- East Bay Municipal Utility District, 1 Winemaster Way, Lodi, CA, 95240, USA
| | - Joseph E Merz
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California Santa Cruz, 130 McAllister Way, Santa Cruz, CA, 95060, USA
- Cramer Fish Sciences, 3300 Industrial Blvd #100, West Sacramento, CA, 95691, USA
| | - Eric P Palkovacs
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California Santa Cruz, 130 McAllister Way, Santa Cruz, CA, 95060, USA
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5
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Lau MJ, Wilson CC, Neff BD. Innate and learned predator recognition across populations of Atlantic salmon,
Salmo salar. Ethology 2021. [DOI: 10.1111/eth.13163] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Malcolm J. Lau
- Department of Biology Western University London ON Canada
| | - Chris C. Wilson
- Aquatic Research and Monitoring Section Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources and Forestry Trent University Peterborough ON Canada
| | - Bryan D. Neff
- Department of Biology Western University London ON Canada
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6
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Edwards MC, Ford C, Hoy JM, FitzGibbon S, Murray PJ. How to train your wildlife: A review of predator avoidance training. Appl Anim Behav Sci 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2020.105170] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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7
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Sabal MC, Merz JE, Alonzo SH, Palkovacs EP. An escape theory model for directionally moving prey and an experimental test in juvenile Chinook salmon. J Anim Ecol 2020; 89:1824-1836. [PMID: 32267534 PMCID: PMC7497163 DOI: 10.1111/1365-2656.13233] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2019] [Accepted: 03/19/2020] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Prey evaluate risk and make decisions based on the balance between the costs of predation and those of engaging in antipredator behaviour. Economic escape theory has been valuable in understanding the responses of stationary prey under predation risk; however, current models are not applicable for directionally moving prey. Here we present an extension of existing escape theory that predicts how much predation risk is perceived by directionally moving prey. Perceived risk is measured by the extent antipredator behaviour causes a change in travel speed (the distance to a destination divided by the total time to reach that destination). Cryptic or cautious antipredator behaviour slows travel speed, while prey may also speed up to reduce predator–prey overlap. Next, we applied the sensitization hypothesis to our model, which predicts that prey with more predator experience should engage in more antipredator behaviour, which leads to a larger change in travel speed under predation risk. We then compared the qualitative predictions of our model to the results of a behavioural assay with juvenile Chinook salmon Oncorhynchus tshawytscha that varied in their past predator experience. We timed salmon swimming downstream through a mesh enclosure in the river with and without predator cues present to measure their reaction to a predator. Hatchery salmon had the least predator experience, followed by wild salmon captured upstream (wild‐upstream) and wild‐salmon captured downstream (wild‐downstream). Both wild salmon groups slowed down in response to predator cues, whereas hatchery salmon did not change travel speed. The magnitude of reaction to predator cues by salmon group followed the gradient of previous predator experience, supporting the sensitization hypothesis. Moving animals are conspicuous and vulnerable to predators. Here we provide a novel conceptual framework for understanding how directionally moving prey perceive risk and make antipredator decisions. Our study extends the scope of economic escape theory and improves general understanding of non‐lethal effects of predators on moving prey.
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Affiliation(s)
- Megan C Sabal
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA, USA
| | - Joseph E Merz
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA, USA.,Cramer Fish Sciences, West Sacramento, CA, USA
| | - Suzanne H Alonzo
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA, USA
| | - Eric P Palkovacs
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA, USA
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8
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Poo S, Hinkson KM. Amphibian conservation using assisted reproductive technologies: Cryopreserved sperm affects offspring morphology, but not behavior, in a toad. Glob Ecol Conserv 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.gecco.2019.e00809] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
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9
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Plath M, Liu K, Umutoni D, Gomes-Silva G, Wei JF, Cyubahiro E, Chen BJ, Sommer-Trembo C. Predator-induced changes of male and female mating preferences: innate and learned components. Curr Zool 2019; 65:305-316. [PMID: 31263489 PMCID: PMC6595919 DOI: 10.1093/cz/zoz003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2018] [Accepted: 01/30/2019] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
While many mating preferences have a genetic basis, the question remains as to whether and how learning/experience can modify individual mate choice decisions. We used wild-caught (predator-experienced) and F1 laboratory-reared (predator-naïve) invasive Western mosquitofish Gambusia affinis from China to test whether mating preferences (assessed in a first mate choice test) would change under immediate predation threat. The same individuals were tested in a second mate choice test during which 1 of 3 types of animated predators was presented: 1) a co-occurring predator, 2) a co-evolved but not currently co-occurring predator, and 3) a non-piscivorous species as control. We compared preference scores derived from both mate choice tests to separate innate from experiential effects of predation. We also asked whether predator-induced changes in mating preferences would differ between sexes or depend on the choosing individual’s personality type and/or body size. Wild-caught fish altered their mate choice decisions most when exposed to the co-occurring predator whereas laboratory-reared individuals responded most to the co-evolved predator, suggesting that both innate mechanisms and learning effects are involved. This behavior likely reduces individuals’ risk of falling victim to predation by temporarily moving away from high-quality (i.e., conspicuous) mating partners. Accordingly, effects were stronger in bolder than shyer, large- compared with small-bodied, and female compared with male focal individuals, likely because those phenotypes face an increased predation risk overall. Our study adds to the growing body of literature appreciating the complexity of the mate choice process, where an array of intrinsic and extrinsic factors interacts during decision-making.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Plath
- Department of Basic and Applied Zoology, College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, China.,Shaanxi Key Laboratory for Molecular Biology in Agriculture, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, China
| | - Kai Liu
- Department of Basic and Applied Zoology, College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, China
| | - Diane Umutoni
- Department of Basic and Applied Zoology, College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, China
| | - Guilherme Gomes-Silva
- Department of Basic and Applied Zoology, College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, China.,Sino-Canadian Center for Environment & Sustainable Development, Department of Geography ("Saude Ambiental"), Universidade Federal de Uberlândia, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Jie-Fei Wei
- Department of Basic and Applied Zoology, College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, China
| | - Eric Cyubahiro
- Department of Basic and Applied Zoology, College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, China
| | - Bo-Jian Chen
- Department of Basic and Applied Zoology, College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, China.,College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai, China
| | - Carolin Sommer-Trembo
- Department of Environmental Sciences, Institute of Zoology, University of Basel, Switzerland
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10
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Jarrold MD, Humphrey C, McCormick MI, Munday PL. Diel CO 2 cycles reduce severity of behavioural abnormalities in coral reef fish under ocean acidification. Sci Rep 2017; 7:10153. [PMID: 28860652 PMCID: PMC5578974 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-10378-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2017] [Accepted: 08/09/2017] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Elevated CO2 levels associated with ocean acidification (OA) have been shown to alter behavioural responses in coral reef fishes. However, all studies to date have used stable pCO2 treatments, not considering the substantial diel pCO2 variation that occurs in shallow reef habitats. Here, we reared juvenile damselfish, Acanthochromis polyacanthus, and clownfish, Amphiprion percula, at stable and diel cycling pCO2 treatments in two experiments. As expected, absolute lateralization of A. polyacanthus and response to predator cue of Am. percula were negatively affected in fish reared at stable, elevated pCO2 in both experiments. However, diel pCO2 fluctuations reduced the negative effects of OA on behaviour. Importantly, in experiment two, behavioural abnormalities that were present in fish reared at stable 750 µatm CO2 were largely absent in fish reared at 750 ± 300 µatm CO2. Overall, we show that diel pCO2 cycles can substantially reduce the severity of behavioural abnormalities caused by elevated CO2. Thus, past studies may have over-estimated the impacts of OA on the behavioural performance of coral reef fishes. Furthermore, our results suggest that diel pCO2 cycles will delay the onset of behavioural abnormalities in natural populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael D Jarrold
- College of Science and Engineering, James Cook University, Townsville, QLD 4811, Australia. .,ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies, James Cook University, Townsville, QLD 4811, Australia.
| | - Craig Humphrey
- National Sea Simulator, Australian Institute of Marine Science, PMB 3, Townsville, Queensland, 4810, Australia
| | - Mark I McCormick
- College of Science and Engineering, James Cook University, Townsville, QLD 4811, Australia.,ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies, James Cook University, Townsville, QLD 4811, Australia
| | - Philip L Munday
- ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies, James Cook University, Townsville, QLD 4811, Australia
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11
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Yin B, Gu C, Lu Y, Hegab IM, Yang S, Wang A, Wei W. Repeated exposure to cat urine induces complex behavioral, hormonal, and c-fos mRNA responses in Norway rats (Rattus norvegicus). Naturwissenschaften 2017; 104:64. [PMID: 28689350 DOI: 10.1007/s00114-017-1484-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2017] [Revised: 06/23/2017] [Accepted: 06/24/2017] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Prey species show specific adaptations that allow recognition, avoidance, and defense against predators. This study was undertaken to investigate the processing of a chronic, life-threatening stimulus to Norway rats (Rattus norvegicus). One hundred forty-four Norway rats were tested by repeated presentation of cat urine for 1 h at different days in a defensive withdrawal apparatus. Rats exposed to urine for short periods showed significantly larger defensive behavioral and medial hypothalamic c-fos messenger RNA (mRNA) responses than other groups. These defensive responses habituated shortly after the presentation of cat urine. Serum levels of adrenocorticotropic hormone and corticosterone increased significantly when animals were repeatedly exposed to cat urine. However, the hormonal responses took longer to habituate than the behavioral and molecular responses did. We conclude that the behavioral and c-fos mRNA responses are "primed" for habituation to repeated exposures to cat urine, while the hormonal responses show "resistance." The results support our hypothesis that the strongest anti-predator responses at three levels would occur during short-term exposure to cat urine and that these responses would subsequently disappear on prolonged exposure. This study assists understanding the way in which the different levels of defensive responses are integrated and react during chronic stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Baofa Yin
- Department of Animal Behavior, College of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, 225009, China
| | - Chen Gu
- Department of Animal Behavior, College of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, 225009, China
| | - Yi Lu
- Department of Animal Behavior, College of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, 225009, China
| | - Ibrahim M Hegab
- Department of Animal Behavior, College of Veterinary Medicine, Suez Canal University, Ismailia, 41522, Egypt
| | - Shengmei Yang
- Department of Animal Behavior, College of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, 225009, China
| | - Aiqin Wang
- Department of Animal Behavior, College of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, 225009, China
| | - Wanhong Wei
- Department of Animal Behavior, College of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, 225009, China.
- Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, 225009, China.
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12
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Hellström G, Magnhagen C. Balancing past and present: how experience influences boldness over time in Eurasian perch. Curr Zool 2017; 63:159-164. [PMID: 29491973 PMCID: PMC5804160 DOI: 10.1093/cz/zow043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2015] [Accepted: 03/09/2016] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Adapting to fluctuating predation conditions is a challenge for prey. By learning through experience, animals may adjust their anti-predator behavior to better reflect current predation risk. Although many studies show experience of predation to alter prey behavior, little is known about how prey rely on such experience over time. By comparing boldness over different temporal scales between individuals of Eurasian perch, either experienced or naïve of predators, we examine how risk is traded based on past and present experience. Differences in predator exposure during the first year of life were found to lead to differences in risk-taking behavior, even after the perch been kept in a predator-free environment for 9 months. However, the response to a potential predator was quickly readjusted after increased experience of current conditions. The results highlight how prey have to balance past experiences of predators against current threat levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gustav Hellström
- Department of Ecology and Environmental Science, Umeå University, SE-901 87 Umeå, Sweden and Department of Wildlife, Fish, and Environmental Studies, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, 901 83 Umeå, Sweden
| | - Carin Magnhagen
- Department of Ecology and Environmental Science, Umeå University, SE-901 87 Umeå, Sweden and Department of Wildlife, Fish, and Environmental Studies, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, 901 83 Umeå, Sweden
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13
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Krause MA. Evolutionary perspectives on learning: conceptual and methodological issues in the study of adaptive specializations. Anim Cogn 2015; 18:807-20. [PMID: 25758787 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-015-0854-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2014] [Accepted: 02/23/2015] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Inquiry into evolutionary adaptations has flourished since the modern synthesis of evolutionary biology. Comparative methods, genetic techniques, and various experimental and modeling approaches are used to test adaptive hypotheses. In psychology, the concept of adaptation is broadly applied and is central to comparative psychology and cognition. The concept of an adaptive specialization of learning is a proposed account for exceptions to general learning processes, as seen in studies of Pavlovian conditioning of taste aversions, sexual responses, and fear. The evidence generally consists of selective associations forming between biologically relevant conditioned and unconditioned stimuli, with conditioned responses differing in magnitude, persistence, or other measures relative to non-biologically relevant stimuli. Selective associations for biologically relevant stimuli may suggest adaptive specializations of learning, but do not necessarily confirm adaptive hypotheses as conceived of in evolutionary biology. Exceptions to general learning processes do not necessarily default to an adaptive specialization explanation, even if experimental results "make biological sense". This paper examines the degree to which hypotheses of adaptive specializations of learning in sexual and fear response systems have been tested using methodologies developed in evolutionary biology (e.g., comparative methods, quantitative and molecular genetics, survival experiments). A broader aim is to offer perspectives from evolutionary biology for testing adaptive hypotheses in psychological science.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark A Krause
- Department of Psychology, Southern Oregon University, Ashland, OR, 97520, USA,
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14
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Roberts LJ, Taylor J, Gough PJ, Forman DW, Garcia de Leaniz C. Silver spoons in the rough: can environmental enrichment improve survival of hatchery Atlantic salmon Salmo salar in the wild? JOURNAL OF FISH BIOLOGY 2014; 85:1972-91. [PMID: 25469954 DOI: 10.1111/jfb.12544] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2014] [Accepted: 09/12/2014] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
This study tested the 'silver spoon' hypothesis which posits that individuals that develop under favourable conditions should enjoy a fitness advantage later in life because they are more likely to recognize and settle in high-quality habitats. Atlantic salmon Salmo salar of two age classes (0+ and 1+ years) were reared in environmentally enriched or standard hatchery tanks for a short period (c. 10 weeks), were then released into a natural river and sampled on repeated occasions to test for silver-spoon effects. Compared with controls, enriched fish had a 6.4% higher recapture rate and settled in higher velocity habitats when they were stocked as 0+ year fry, but not when they were stocked as 1+ year parr. The opportunity for selection was generally higher for environmentally enriched fish than for controls, and also higher for 0+ than for 1+ year fish. Selection favoured individuals with high condition factor, extensive fat reserves and longer than average pectoral fins in both age classes but favoured a small body size in 1+ year and a large body size in 0+ year releases. Stomach analysis showed that enriched fish ate more, and adapted quicker to natural prey than controls. These results provide support for silver-spoon effects in fish and indicate that enrichment can improve post-release performance in conservation programmes, but seemingly only if fish are not kept in captivity for too long.
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Affiliation(s)
- L J Roberts
- Swansea University, Centre for Sustainable Aquatic Research, Department of Biosciences, Swansea SA2 8PP, U.K
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15
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Takahashi K, Masuda R, Yamashita Y. Development of observational learning during school formation in jack mackerel Trachurus japonicus juveniles. Behav Processes 2014; 103:52-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2013.10.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2013] [Revised: 10/11/2013] [Accepted: 10/27/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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16
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Defensive responses of Brandt's voles (Lasiopodomys brandtii) to stored cat feces. Physiol Behav 2014; 123:193-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2013.10.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2013] [Revised: 10/04/2013] [Accepted: 10/22/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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17
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Milot E, Perrier C, Papillon L, Dodson JJ, Bernatchez L. Reduced fitness of Atlantic salmon released in the wild after one generation of captive breeding. Evol Appl 2012; 6:472-85. [PMID: 23745139 PMCID: PMC3673475 DOI: 10.1111/eva.12028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2012] [Accepted: 10/08/2012] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Salmonids rank among the most socioeconomically valuable fishes and the most targeted species by stocking with hatchery-reared individuals. Here, we used molecular parentage analysis to assess the reproductive success of wild- and hatchery-born Atlantic salmon over three consecutive years in a small river in Québec. Yearly restocking in this river follows a single generation of captive breeding. Among the adults returning to the river to spawn, between 11% and 41% each year were born in hatchery. Their relative reproductive success (RRS) was nearly half that of wild-born fish (0.55). RRS varied with life stage, being 0.71 for fish released at the fry stage and 0.42 for fish released as smolt. The lower reproductive success of salmon released as smolt was partly mediated by the modification of the proportion of single-sea-winter/multi-sea-winter fish. Overall, our results suggest that modifications in survival and growth rates alter the life-history strategies of these fish at the cost of their reproductive success. Our results underline the potential fitness decrease, warn on long-term evolutionary consequences for the population of repeated stocking and support the adoption of more natural rearing conditions for captive juveniles and their release at a younger stage, such as unfed fry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emmanuel Milot
- Département de Biologie, Institut de Biologie Intégrative et des Systèmes (IBIS), Université Laval Québec City, QC, Canada
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18
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Stimulus-specific development of learning ability during habitat shift in pre to post-recruitment stage jack mackerel. J ETHOL 2012. [DOI: 10.1007/s10164-012-0328-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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19
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Cornell HN, Marzluff JM, Pecoraro S. Social learning spreads knowledge about dangerous humans among American crows. Proc Biol Sci 2011; 279:499-508. [PMID: 21715408 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2011.0957] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Individuals face evolutionary trade-offs between the acquisition of costly but accurate information gained firsthand and the use of inexpensive but possibly less reliable social information. American crows (Corvus brachyrhynchos) use both sources of information to learn the facial features of a dangerous person. We exposed wild crows to a novel 'dangerous face' by wearing a unique mask as we trapped, banded and released 7-15 birds at five study sites near Seattle, WA, USA. An immediate scolding response to the dangerous mask after trapping by previously captured crows demonstrates individual learning, while an immediate response by crows that were not captured probably represents conditioning to the trapping scene by the mob of birds that assembled during the capture. Later recognition of dangerous masks by lone crows that were never captured is consistent with horizontal social learning. Independent scolding by young crows, whose parents had conditioned them to scold the dangerous mask, demonstrates vertical social learning. Crows that directly experienced trapping later discriminated among dangerous and neutral masks more precisely than did crows that learned through social means. Learning enabled scolding to double in frequency and spread at least 1.2 km from the place of origin over a 5 year period at one site.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heather N Cornell
- School of Forest Resources, College of the Environment, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
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20
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Walzer A, Schausberger P. Threat-sensitive anti-intraguild predation behaviour: maternal strategies to reduce offspring predation risk in mites. Anim Behav 2011; 81:177-184. [PMID: 21317973 PMCID: PMC3018599 DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2010.09.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2010] [Revised: 06/17/2010] [Accepted: 09/20/2010] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Predation is a major selective force for the evolution of behavioural characteristics of prey. Predation among consumers competing for food is termed intraguild predation (IGP). From the perspective of individual prey, IGP differs from classical predation in the likelihood of occurrence because IG prey is usually more rarely encountered and less profitable because it is more difficult to handle than classical prey. It is not known whether IGP is a sufficiently strong force to evolve interspecific threat sensitivity in antipredation behaviours, as is known from classical predation, and if so whether such behaviours are innate or learned. We examined interspecific threat sensitivity in antipredation in a guild of predatory mite species differing in adaptation to the shared spider mite prey (i.e. Phytoseiulus persimilis, Neoseiulus californicus and Amblyseius andersoni). We first ranked the players in this guild according to the IGP risk posed to each other: A. andersoni was the strongest IG predator; P. persimilis was the weakest. Then, we assessed the influence of relative IGP risk and experience on maternal strategies to reduce offspring IGP risk: A. andersoni was insensitive to IGP risk. Threat sensitivity in oviposition site selection was induced by experience in P. persimilis but occurred independently of experience in N. californicus. Irrespective of experience, P. persimilis laid fewer eggs in choice situations with the high- rather than low-risk IG predator. Our study suggests that, similar to classical predation, IGP may select for sophisticated innate and learned interspecific threat-sensitive antipredation responses. We argue that such responses may promote the coexistence of IG predators and prey.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreas Walzer
- Department of Applied Plant Sciences and Plant Biotechnology, Institute of Plant Protection, University of Natural Resources and Applied Life Sciences, Austria
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Takahashi K, Masuda R, Yamashita Y. Ontogenetic changes in the spatial learning capability of jack mackerel Trachurus japonicus. JOURNAL OF FISH BIOLOGY 2010; 77:2315-2325. [PMID: 21155785 DOI: 10.1111/j.1095-8649.2010.02812.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
Ontogenetic changes in learning capability were studied in jack mackerel Trachurus japonicus juveniles ranging from 20 to 95 mm standard length (L(S)) collected from either pelagic or coastal habitats. Simple spatial and reversal learning tasks were used to estimate learning capability. There was no size dependence in the scores of simple reward conditioning using a Y-maze, whereas the scores of reversal learning tasks showed a clear sigmoidal curve of increase with an inflexion point at 51·7 mm L(S). The increase in this learning capability coincided with the size at which juveniles recruit from offshore pelagic to coastal rocky habitats.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Takahashi
- Maizuru Fisheries Research Station, Kyoto University, Nagahama, Maizuru, Kyoto 625-0086, Japan.
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Ferrari MC, Wisenden BD, Chivers DP. Chemical ecology of predator–prey interactions in aquatic ecosystems: a review and prospectusThe present review is one in the special series of reviews on animal–plant interactions. CAN J ZOOL 2010. [DOI: 10.1139/z10-029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 649] [Impact Index Per Article: 46.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The interaction between predator and prey is an evolutionary arms race, for which early detection by either party is often the key to success. In aquatic ecosystems, olfaction is an essential source of information for many prey and predators and a number of cues have been shown to play a key role in trait-mediated indirect interactions in aquatic communities. Here, we review the nature and role of predator kairomones, chemical alarm cues, disturbance cues, and diet cues on the behaviour, morphology, life history, and survival of aquatic prey, focusing primarily on the discoveries from the last decade. Many advances in the field have been accomplished: testing the survival value of those chemicals, providing field validation of laboratory results, understanding the extent to which chemically mediated learning may benefit the prey, understanding the role of these chemicals in mediating morphological and life-history adaptations, and most importantly, the selection pressures leading to the evolution of chemical alarm cues. Although considerable advances have been made, several key questions remain, the most urgent of which is to understand the chemistry behind these interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maud C.O. Ferrari
- Department of Biology, University of Saskatchewan, 112 Science Place, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5E2, Canada
- Biosciences Department, Minnesota State University Moorhead, 1104 7th Avenue South, Moorhead, MN 56563, USA
| | - Brian D. Wisenden
- Department of Biology, University of Saskatchewan, 112 Science Place, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5E2, Canada
- Biosciences Department, Minnesota State University Moorhead, 1104 7th Avenue South, Moorhead, MN 56563, USA
| | - Douglas P. Chivers
- Department of Biology, University of Saskatchewan, 112 Science Place, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5E2, Canada
- Biosciences Department, Minnesota State University Moorhead, 1104 7th Avenue South, Moorhead, MN 56563, USA
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Brockmark S, Adriaenssens B, Johnsson JI. Less is more: density influences the development of behavioural life skills in trout. Proc Biol Sci 2010; 277:3035-43. [PMID: 20462903 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2010.0561] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Theory suggests that habitat structure and population density profoundly influence the phenotypic development of animals. Here, we predicted that reduced rearing density and increased structural complexity promote food search ability, anti-predator response and the ability to forage on novel prey, all behavioural skills important for surviving in the wild. Brown trout were reared at three densities (conventional hatchery density, a fourth of conventional hatchery density and natural density) in tanks with or without structure. Treatment effects on behaviour were studied on trout fry and parr, whereupon 20 trout from each of the six treatment groups were released in an enclosed natural stream and recaptured after 36 days. Fry reared at natural density were faster to find prey in a maze. Moreover, parr reared at natural density were faster to eat novel prey, and showed more efficient anti-predator behaviour than fish reared at higher densities. Furthermore, parr reared at reduced densities were twice as likely to survive in the stream as trout reared at high density. In contrast, we found no clear treatment effects of structure. These novel results suggest that reduced rearing densities can facilitate the development of behavioural life skills in captive animals, thereby increasing their contribution to natural production.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Brockmark
- Department of Zoology, University of Gothenburg, Göteborg, Sweden
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Heenan A, Simpson SD, Meekan MG, Healy SD, Braithwaite VA. Restoring depleted coral-reef fish populations through recruitment enhancement: a proof of concept. JOURNAL OF FISH BIOLOGY 2009; 75:1857-1867. [PMID: 20738653 DOI: 10.1111/j.1095-8649.2009.02401.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
To determine whether enhancing the survival of new recruits is a sensible target for the restorative management of depleted coral-reef fish populations, settlement-stage ambon damsel fish Pomacentrus amboinensis were captured, tagged and then either released immediately onto small artificial reefs or held in aquaria for 1 week prior to release. Holding conditions were varied to determine whether they affected survival of fish: half the fish were held in bare tanks (non-enriched) and the other half in tanks containing coral and sand (enriched). Holding fish for this short period had a significantly positive effect on survivorship relative to the settlement-stage treatment group that were released immediately. The enrichment of holding conditions made no appreciable difference on the survival of fish once released onto the reef. It did, however, have a positive effect on the survival of fish while in captivity, thus supporting the case for the provision of simple environmental enrichment in fish husbandry. Collecting and holding settlement-stage fish for at least a week before release appear to increase the short-term survival of released fish; whether it is an effective method for longer-term enhancement of locally depleted coral-reef fish populations will require further study.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Heenan
- Institute of Evolutionary Biology, School of Biological Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Kings Buildings, Edinburgh EH9 3JT, UK.
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25
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Gonzalo A, López P, Martín J. Learning, memorizing and apparent forgetting of chemical cues from new predators by Iberian green frog tadpoles. Anim Cogn 2009; 12:745-50. [PMID: 19449191 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-009-0232-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2008] [Revised: 02/26/2009] [Accepted: 05/01/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Many antipredator adaptations are induced by the prey's ability to recognize chemical cues from predators. However, predator recognition often requires learning by prey individuals. Iberian green frog tadpoles (Pelophylax perezi) have the ability to learn new potential predators. Here, we tested the memory capabilities of Iberian green frog tadpoles. We conditioned tadpoles with chemicals cues from a non-predatory fish in conjunction with conspecific alarm cues, and examined whether tadpoles retained their conditioned response (reduction of activity level). We found that conditioned tadpoles reduced their activity levels in subsequent exposures to the non-predatory fish cues alone. Tadpoles were able to remember this association and reduced movement rate at least for 9 days after. The ability to learn and memorize potential predators may be especially important for the survivorship of prey species that are likely to find a high variety of predators. However, after those 9 days, there was a lack of response to the non-predatory fish cues alone in the absence of reinforcement. This could be explained if tadpoles behave according to the threat-sensitive predator avoidance hypothesis, and the perceived risk to the learning cue diminished over time, or it could be due to an apparent forgetting process to avoid non-adaptative responses to chemical cues of non-dangerous species that were randomly paired with alarm cues. Thus, this study demonstrates that green frog tadpoles in the absence of reinforcement remember the chemical cues of a learned predator only for a limited time that may be adaptative in a threat-sensitive context.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adega Gonzalo
- Departamento de Ecología Evolutiva, Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales, C.S.I.C., José Gutiérrez Abascal 2, Madrid 28006, Spain.
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