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McCambridge JE, Painting CJ, Walker LA, Holwell GI. Contests between male New Zealand sheet-web spiders, Cambridgea plagiata (Araneae: Desidae). NEW ZEALAND JOURNAL OF ZOOLOGY 2021. [DOI: 10.1080/03014223.2021.1909081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Josephine E. McCambridge
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
- AsureQuality Ltd, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Christina J. Painting
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
- School of Science, University of Waikato, Hamilton, New Zealand
| | - Leilani A. Walker
- Auckland War Memorial Museum Tāmaki Paenga Hira, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Gregory I. Holwell
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
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2
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Effect of diet and rearing density on contest outcome and settlement in a field cricket. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s00265-021-02990-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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3
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Weller JE, Turner SP, Futro A, Donbavand J, Brims M, Arnott G. The influence of early life socialisation on cognition in the domestic pig (Sus scrofa domestica). Sci Rep 2020; 10:19077. [PMID: 33154415 PMCID: PMC7644636 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-76110-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2020] [Accepted: 10/12/2020] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Previously, the benefits of early-life socialisation on later-life social development have been reported in pigs. Here we investigated the effect of pre-weaning socialisation on the later-life cognitive ability of pigs using a range of techniques. Pre-weaning, 101 piglets had access to a neighbouring pen from ~ 15 days of age and interacted with non-littermates (socialised). An additional 89 piglets remained isolated within their home pen (controls). After weaning, 100 individuals were selected for a range of cognitive tests including a food reward T-maze test, reversal learning T-maze test, a social preference T-maze test, and a puzzle box test. Performance during the food reward test was not influenced by treatment. Treatment effected improvement over the course of the reversal learning test, with controls showing a significant decrease in trial duration after the first two trials. During the social preference test, socialised pigs spent significantly more time in the presence of larger stimulus pigs than controls and were quicker to leave the middle of the maze, suggesting improved social skills. Neither sex nor treatment was observed to influence pig's ability to solve the puzzle box. Thus, overall, evidence from the social preference test suggests an effect of pre-weaning socialisation on aspects of social cognitive development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer E Weller
- Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Sciences, Queens University Belfast, Belfast, UK.
- Department of Comparative Pathobiology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA.
| | - Simon P Turner
- Animal Behaviour & Welfare, Scotland's Rural College (SRUC), Edinburgh, UK
| | - Agnieszka Futro
- Animal Behaviour & Welfare, Scotland's Rural College (SRUC), Edinburgh, UK
| | - Jo Donbavand
- Animal Behaviour & Welfare, Scotland's Rural College (SRUC), Edinburgh, UK
| | - Mark Brims
- Animal Behaviour & Welfare, Scotland's Rural College (SRUC), Edinburgh, UK
| | - Gareth Arnott
- Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Sciences, Queens University Belfast, Belfast, UK
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4
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Brown M. Detecting an Effect of Group Size on Individual Responses to Neighboring Groups in Gray-Cheeked Mangabeys (Lophocebus albigena). INT J PRIMATOL 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s10764-020-00144-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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5
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Weller JE, Turner SP, Farish M, Camerlink I, Arnott G. The Association Between Play Fighting and Information Gathering during Subsequent Contests. Sci Rep 2020; 10:1133. [PMID: 31980694 PMCID: PMC6981131 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-58063-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2019] [Accepted: 12/19/2019] [Indexed: 11/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Many hypotheses regarding the evolution of social play have been suggested, including the development of later-life assessment skills. However, the link between play fighting experience and information gathering during contests has yet to be examined. This paper explores the association between play fighting and contest assessment strategy in the domestic pig (Sus scrofa). Using an established framework, we provide evidence suggesting play fighting frequency may affect the extent to which individuals incorporate information regarding their own and their competitors' resource holding potential (RHP) in escalation decisions. Pigs were allocated as 'high play' or 'low play' based upon their relative play fighting frequency. To maximise variation in play, 12 litters underwent a socialisation treatment while the remaining 12 litters were kept isolated within their home pen (i.e. control treatment). At eight weeks of age contests were staged between pairs of unfamiliar pigs, using 19 'high play' dyads and 19 'low play' dyads. While 'high play' dyads were observed to rely on a pure self-assessment strategy, 'low play dyads' did not meet the predictions of either self- or mutual assessment, suggesting their contest behaviour may have been motivated by alternative factors. We suggest that early life play fighting may therefore allow individuals to develop an accurate estimate of their RHP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer E Weller
- Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Sciences, Queens University Belfast, Belfast, UK.
| | - Simon P Turner
- Animal Behaviour & Welfare, Scotland's Rural College (SRUC), Edinburgh, UK
| | - Marianne Farish
- Animal Behaviour & Welfare, Scotland's Rural College (SRUC), Edinburgh, UK
| | - Irene Camerlink
- Institute of Animal Welfare Science, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna (Vetmeduni), Vienna, Austria
| | - Gareth Arnott
- Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Sciences, Queens University Belfast, Belfast, UK
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6
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Weller JE, Camerlink I, Turner SP, Farish M, Arnott G. Playful pigs: early life play-fighting experience influences later life contest dynamics. Anim Behav 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2019.09.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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7
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Self-assessment strategy during contest decisions between male Great Himalayan leaf-nosed bats. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/s00265-019-2657-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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8
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Kasumovic MM, Blake K, Denson TF. Using knowledge from human research to improve understanding of contest theory and contest dynamics. Proc Biol Sci 2018; 284:rspb.2017.2182. [PMID: 29237857 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2017.2182] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2017] [Accepted: 11/15/2017] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Our understanding of animal contests and the factors that affect contest dynamics and decisions stems from a long and prosperous collaboration between empiricists and theoreticians. Over the last two decades, however, theoretical predictions regarding the factors that affect individual decisions before, during and after a contest are becoming increasingly difficult to test empirically. Extremely large sample sizes are necessary to experimentally test the nuanced theoretical assumptions surrounding how information is used by animals during a contest, how context changes the information used, and how individuals change behaviour as a result of both the information available and the context in which the information is acquired. In this review, we discuss how the investigation of contests in humans through the collaboration of biologists and psychologists may advance contest theory and dynamics in general. We argue that a long and productive history exploring human behaviour and psychology combined with technological advancements provide a unique opportunity to manipulate human perception during contests and collect unbiased data, allowing more targeted examinations of particular aspects of contest theory (e.g. winner/loser effects, information use as a function of age). We hope that our perspective provides the impetus for many future collaborations between biologists and psychologists.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael M Kasumovic
- Ecology and Evolution Research Centre, School of Biological, Earth & Environmental Sciences, UNSW Australia, Sydney, New South Wales 2052, Australia
| | - Khandis Blake
- Ecology and Evolution Research Centre, School of Biological, Earth & Environmental Sciences, UNSW Australia, Sydney, New South Wales 2052, Australia
| | - Thomas F Denson
- School of Psychology, UNSW Australia, Sydney, New South Wales 2052, Australia
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9
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Fea M, Holwell G. Combat in a cave-dwelling wētā (Orthoptera: Rhaphidophoridae) with exaggerated weaponry. Anim Behav 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2018.02.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
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10
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Liedtke J, Schneider JM. Social makes smart: rearing conditions affect learning and social behaviour in jumping spiders. Anim Cogn 2017; 20:1093-1106. [DOI: 10.1007/s10071-017-1125-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2017] [Revised: 08/16/2017] [Accepted: 08/17/2017] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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11
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Reichert MS, Quinn JL. Cognition in Contests: Mechanisms, Ecology, and Evolution. Trends Ecol Evol 2017; 32:773-785. [PMID: 28823589 DOI: 10.1016/j.tree.2017.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2017] [Revised: 07/07/2017] [Accepted: 07/18/2017] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Animal contests govern access to key resources and are a fundamental determinant of fitness within populations. Little is known about the mechanisms generating individual variation in strategic contest behavior or what this variation means for population level processes. Cognition governs the expression of behaviors during contests, most notably by linking experience gained with decision making, but its role in driving the evolutionary ecological dynamics of contests is only beginning to emerge. We review the kinds of cognitive mechanisms that underlie contest behavior, emphasize the importance of feedback loops and socio-ecological context, and suggest that contest behavior provides an ideal focus for integrative studies of phenotypic variation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael S Reichert
- School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Science, University College Cork, North Mall, Cork, T23 N73K, Ireland.
| | - John L Quinn
- School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Science, University College Cork, North Mall, Cork, T23 N73K, Ireland
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12
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Rillich J, Stevenson PA. Losing without Fighting - Simple Aversive Stimulation Induces Submissiveness Typical for Social Defeat via the Action of Nitric Oxide, but Only When Preceded by an Aggression Priming Stimulus. Front Behav Neurosci 2017; 11:50. [PMID: 28381994 PMCID: PMC5360729 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2017.00050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2016] [Accepted: 03/03/2017] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Losing a fight (social defeat) induces submissiveness and behavioral depression in many animals, but the mechanisms are unclear. Here we investigate how the social defeat syndrome can be established as a result of experiencing aversive stimuli and the roles of neuromodulators in the process. While biogenic amines and nitric oxide (NO) are associated with reduced aggression in mammals and insects, their specific actions during conflict are unknown. Although the social defeat syndrome normally results from complex interactions, we could induce it in male crickets simply by applying aversive stimuli (AS) in an aggressive context. Aggressive crickets became immediately submissive and behaved like losers after experiencing two brief AS (light wind puffs to the cerci), but only when preceded by a priming stimulus (PS, stroking the antenna with another male antenna). Notably, submissiveness was not induced when the PS preceded the AS by more than 1 min, or when the PS followed the AS, or using a female antenna as the preceding stimulus. These findings suggest that any potentially detrimental stimulus can acquire the attribute of an aversive agonistic signal when experienced in an aggressive context. Crickets, it seems, need only to evaluate their net sensory impact rather than the qualities of a variety of complex agonistic signals. Selective drug treatments revealed that NO, but not serotonin, dopamine or octopamine, is necessary to establish the submissive status following pairing of the priming and aversive stimuli. Moreover, treatment with an NO donor also induced the social defeat syndrome, but only when combined with the PS. This confirms our hypothesis that aversive agonistic experiences accumulated by crickets during fighting invoke social defeat via the action of NO and illustrates that a relatively simple mechanism underlies the seemingly complex social decision to flee. The simple stimulus regime described here for inducing social defeat opens new avenues for investigating the cellular control of subordinate behavior and post-conflict depression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan Rillich
- Institute for Biology, Leipzig University Leipzig, Germany
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13
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McCallum ES, Gulas ST, Balshine S. Accurate resource assessment requires experience in a territorial fish. Anim Behav 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2016.10.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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14
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Camerlink I, Arnott G, Farish M, Turner SP. Complex contests and the influence of aggressiveness in pigs. Anim Behav 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2016.08.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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15
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To breathe or fight? Siamese fighting fish differ when facing a real opponent or mirror image. Behav Processes 2016; 129:11-17. [DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2016.05.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2016] [Revised: 05/20/2016] [Accepted: 05/23/2016] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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16
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van der Bijl W, Kolm N. Why direct effects of predation complicate the social brain hypothesis. Bioessays 2016; 38:568-77. [DOI: 10.1002/bies.201500166] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Niclas Kolm
- Department of Zoology/Ethology; Stockholm University; Stockholm Sweden
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17
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McGinley RH, Taylor PW. Video playback experiments support a role for visual assessment of opponent size in male-male contests of Servaea incana jumping spiders. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 2016. [DOI: 10.1007/s00265-016-2103-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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18
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Stevenson PA, Rillich J. Controlling the decision to fight or flee: the roles of biogenic amines and nitric oxide in the cricket. Curr Zool 2016; 62:265-275. [PMID: 29491914 PMCID: PMC5804241 DOI: 10.1093/cz/zow028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2016] [Accepted: 02/14/2016] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Aggression is a common behavioral strategy employed by animals to secure limited resources, but must be applied with restraint to limit potential costs including injury. How animals make the adaptive decision to fight or flee is barely known. Here, we review our work on crickets that reveals the roles of biogenic amines, primarily octopamine (the insect analog of noradrenaline) and nitric oxide (NO). Using aminergic drugs, we found that amines are not essential for actually initiating aggression. However, octopamine is necessary for mediating the aggression-promoting effects of potentially rewarding experiences including stimulation with a male antenna, physical exertion, winning, and resource possession. Hence, octopamine can be considered as the motivational component of aggression. Imposed handicaps that impede aggressive signaling revealed that the agonistic actions of an opponent perceived during fighting act to reduce aggression, and that crickets make the decision to flee the moment the accumulated sum of such aversive experiences exceeds some critical level. Treatment with nitridergic drugs revealed that the impact of the opponent’s aggressive actions is mediated by NO. NO acts to suppress aggression by promoting the tendency to flee and is primarily responsible for the depressed aggressiveness of subordinates after social defeat. Octopamine and dopamine can each restore aggression in subordinates, but only dopamine is necessary for normal recovery. The role of serotonin remains unclear, and is discussed. We conclude that octopamine and NO control the decision to fight or flee by mediating the effects of potentially rewarding and aversive experiences, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul A Stevenson
- Institute for Biology, Leipzig University, Talstr. 33, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Jan Rillich
- Institute for Biology, Leipzig University, Talstr. 33, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
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Bee M, Reichert M, Tumulty J. Assessment and Recognition of Rivals in Anuran Contests. ADVANCES IN THE STUDY OF BEHAVIOR 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/bs.asb.2016.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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20
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22
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Guillermo-Ferreira R, Gorb SN, Appel E, Kovalev A, Bispo PC. Variable assessment of wing colouration in aerial contests of the red-winged damselfly Mnesarete pudica (Zygoptera, Calopterygidae). Naturwissenschaften 2015; 102:13. [PMID: 25776927 DOI: 10.1007/s00114-015-1261-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2014] [Revised: 02/02/2015] [Accepted: 02/04/2015] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Wing pigmentation is a trait that predicts the outcome of male contests in some damselflies. Thus, it is reasonable to suppose that males would have the ability to assess wing pigmentation and adjust investment in a fight according to the costs that the rival may potentially impose. Males of the damselfly Mnesarete pudica exhibit red-coloured wings and complex courtship behaviour and engage in striking male-male fights. In this study, we investigated male assessment behaviour during aerial contests. Theory suggests that the relationship between male resource-holding potential (RHP) and contest duration describes the kind of assessment adopted by males: self-assessment, opponent-only assessment or mutual assessment. A recent theory also suggests that weak and strong males exhibit variations in the assessment strategies adopted. We estimated male RHP through male body size and wing colouration (i.e. pigmentation, wing reflectance spectra and transmission spectra) and studied the relationship between male RHP and contest duration from video-documented behavioural observations of naturally occurring individual contests in the field. The results showed that males with more opaque wings and larger red spots were more likely to win contests. The relationships between RHP and contest durations partly supported the self-assessment and the mutual assessment models. We then experimentally augmented the pigmented area of the wings, in order to evaluate whether strong and weak males assess rivals' RHP through wing pigmentation. Our experimental manipulation, however, clearly demonstrated that strong males assess rivals' wing pigmentation. We finally suggest that there is a variation in the assessment strategy adopted by males.
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Assessment strategies and decision making in male–male contests of Servaea incana jumping spiders. Anim Behav 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2014.12.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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Stevenson PA, Rillich J. Adding up the odds-Nitric oxide signaling underlies the decision to flee and post-conflict depression of aggression. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2015; 1:e1500060. [PMID: 26601155 PMCID: PMC4643817 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.1500060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2015] [Accepted: 02/17/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Fighting is dangerous, which is why animals choose to flee once the costs outweigh the benefits, but the mechanisms underlying this decision-making process are unknown. By manipulating aggressive signaling and applying nitrergic drugs, we show that the evolutionarily conserved neuromodulator nitric oxide (NO), which has a suppressing effect on aggression in mammals, can play a decisive role. We found that crickets, which exhibit spectacular fighting behavior, flee once the sum of their opponent's aversive actions accrued during fighting exceeds a critical amount. This effect of aversive experience is mediated by the NO signaling pathway. Rather than suppressing aggressive motivation, NO increases susceptibility to aversive stimuli and with it the likelihood to flee. NO's effect is manifested in losers by prolonged avoidance behavior, characteristic for social defeat in numerous species. Intriguingly, fighting experience also induces, via NO, a brief susceptible period to aversive stimuli in winners just after victory. Our findings thus reveal a key role for NO in the mechanism underlying the decision to flee and post-conflict depression in aggressive behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul A. Stevenson
- Institute for Biology, Leipzig University, Talstraße 33, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Jan Rillich
- Institute for Neurobiology, Free University of Berlin, Koenigin-Luise-Straße 28–30, 14195 Berlin, Germany
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25
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Rival assessment and comparison of morphological and performance-based predictors of fighting ability in Lake Eyre dragon lizards, Ctenophorus maculosus. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 2014. [DOI: 10.1007/s00265-014-1863-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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26
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Elwood RW, Stoilova V, McDonnell A, Earley RL, Arnott G. Do mirrors reflect reality in agonistic encounters? A test of mutual cooperation in displays. Anim Behav 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2014.07.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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27
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Palaoro AV, Dalosto MM, Costa JR, Santos S. Freshwater decapod ( Aegla longirostri ) uses a mixed assessment strategy to resolve contests. Anim Behav 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2014.06.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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28
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Painting CJ, Holwell GI. Exaggerated rostra as weapons and the competitive assessment strategy of male giraffe weevils. Behav Ecol 2014. [DOI: 10.1093/beheco/aru119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
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29
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Jennings DJ. Limited evidence that visual lateralization is associated with fitness in rutting male fallow deer. Anim Behav 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2014.03.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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