Contact pheromones mediate male preference in black widow spiders: avoidance of hungry sexual cannibals?

Males discriminate between substrate-borne cues of conspecific females based on age and mating status in the jumping spider, Habronattus brunneus

Sexual selection is often studied with a focus on female mate choice, wherein females evaluate male signals to select an optimal mate. However, in some systems, males should also make careful decisions about the females they choose to court, particularly when faced with the risk of precopulatory sexual cannibalism. Here, we explore the idea that male jumping spiders (Habronattus brunneus) may mitigate this risk by responding to female cues probably associated with female aggression and/or receptivity. We tested mature male spiders' ability to discriminate between substrate-borne cues (i.e. silk and excreta) produced by conspecific females of different ages and mating statuses. We found that males spent more time exploring cues produced by mature, non-mated females compared with either immature females or mated females. Heightened interest in cues produced by females that are sexually mature but not yet mated may allow males to reduce cannibalism risk, reduce wasted courtship effort and increase their reproductive success. The use of chemical and/or tactile cues in jumping spider courtship behaviour has been vastly understudied compared with the ways they use vision; this study provides the groundwork for understanding how these sensory modalities interact.

Starving infecund widow spiders maintain sexual attractiveness and trade off safety for enhanced prey capture

Starving animals must balance their resources between immediate survival and future reproduction. False widow spiders, Steatoda grossa, inhabit indoor settings with scarce prey. Here, we investigated the effects of lengthy starvation on the physiology, web architecture, sexual signaling, and reproductive success of S. grossa females. Compared to well-fed females, starving females (1) lost body mass faster, (2) had lower survival, (3) produced more silk for prey capture than for safety, and (4) deposited less contact pheromone components on their webs but accelerated their hydrolysis to mate-attractant components. As starving females became infecund - but still attracted and copulated with males - they misguided males that would gain reproductive fitness by selecting fecund females. Whether starving females store sperm and potentially regain fecundity upon feeding is still unknown. Our study shows how prey shortage shapes sexual signaling, predation, and reproductive behavior of S. grossa females that seem to engage in deceptive signaling.

Does female control and male mating system predict courtship investment and mating outcomes? A comparative study in five widow spider species (genus Latrodectus) tested under similar laboratory conditions

BACKGROUND

Male courtship investment may evolve in response to the male's expectation of future mating opportunities or the degree of female control during mating interactions. We used a comparative approach to test this hypotheses by assessing the courtship and mating behaviors of five widow spider species (genus Latrodectus) under common laboratory conditions. We predicted male investment in courtship would be higher in species where males mate only once because of high cannibalism rates (monogyny, L. geometricus, L. hasselti, L. mirabilis), compared to species with rare cannibalism (L. mactans, L. hesperus) in which males should reserve energy for future mating opportunities. Increased male investment, measured as courtship duration, might also evolve with increased female control over mating outcomes if females prefer longer courtships. We tested this by assessing the frequency of copulations, timing of sexual cannibalism, and the degree of female-biased size dimorphism, which is expected to be negatively correlated with the energetic cost of rebuffing male mating attempts.

RESULTS

Copulation frequency was consistently lower in species with extreme female-skewed size dimorphism, and where sexual cannibalism was more prevalent, suggesting the importance of female control for mating outcomes. We confirmed significant interspecific variation in average courtship duration, but contrary to predictions, it was not predicted by male mating system, and there was no consistent link between courtship duration and sexual size dimorphism.

CONCLUSION

We show that the degree of sexual dimorphism is not only correlated with sexual cannibalism, but also with mating success since restriction of male copulation frequency by female Latrodectus affects paternity. However, predictions about male mating system or female control affecting courtship duration were not supported. We propose that the form of female control over mating and cannibalism, and male responses, might be more informative for understanding the evolution of courtship duration. For example, male tactics to avoid female aggression may drive lower courtship duration in species like L. mirabilis. Nonetheless, our results differ from inferences based on published studies of each species in isolation, illuminating the need for standardized data collection for behavioural comparative studies.

Meta-analytical evidence that males prefer virgin females

Males are often predicted to prefer virgin over non-virgin females because of the reduced risk of sperm competition. Does this prediction hold across studies? Our systematic meta-analysis of 138 studies, mainly conducted in invertebrates, confirms that males generally prefer virgin females. However, males preferred virgin females even in species with last male sperm precedence, suggesting that sperm competition alone does not drive male preferences. Furthermore, our results suggest that males may reject mated females even when no alternative exists. Preference for virgins is unlikely to influence female reproductive success since virginity cannot be selected for, but strong preference for virgin females could swamp or reinforce selection on other traits. Our results add to growing evidence that males are not indiscriminate in mating. However, given the unexplained heterogeneity in effect sizes, we urge caution in assuming that males will prefer virgins and recommend considering the natural context of mating decisions.

Unraveling the Significance of Draglines: Female Sexual Signalization in the Nursery-Web Spider, Pisaura mirabilis

Chemical signals used by animals to attract the opposite sex are well known in insects, but heavily understudied in spiders. We investigated the role of chemical signals in female draglines in a gift-giving spider, Pisaura mirabilis, using combined data from behavioral tests and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). We also investigated whether the quality of sexual signalization is influenced by crucial factors, such as female spider ontogeny, nutritional status, and mating status. We found that draglines of adult (versus subadult) and hungry (versus fed) females stimulated male motivation to produce nuptial gift, and highly sexually excited males invested more silk in gift production than less sexually excited males. Unexpectedly, chemical signals of eggsac-carrying females were similarly sexually attractive to draglines of adult females not carrying eggsac. HPLC identified significant chemical differences in female draglines, but these differences did not always correspond to male behavior. The integration of behavioral and chemical approaches is required to better understand animal behavior in future research.

The evolution of dynamic and flexible courtship displays that reveal individual quality

Abstract

Sexual selection is a major force shaping morphological and behavioral diversity. Existing theory focuses on courtship display traits such as morphological ornaments whose costs and benefits are assumed be to fixed across individuals’ lifetimes. In contrast, empirically observed displays are often inherently dynamic, as vividly illustrated by the acrobatic dances, loud vocalizations, and vigorous motor displays involved in courtship behavior across a broad range of taxa. One empirically observed form of display flexibility occurs when signalers adjust their courtship investment based on the number of rival signalers. The predictions of established sexual selection theory cannot readily be extended to such displays because display expression varies between courtship events, such that any given display may not reliably reflect signaler quality. We thus lack an understanding of how dynamic displays coevolve with sexual preferences and how signalers should tactically adjust their display investment across multiple courtship opportunities. To address these questions, we extended an established model of the coevolution of a female sexual preference and a male display trait to allow for flexible, dynamic displays. We find that such a display can coevolve with a sexual preference away from their naturally selected optima, though display intensity is a weaker signal of male quality than for non-flexible displays. Furthermore, we find that males evolve to decrease their display investment when displaying alongside more rivals. This research represents a first step towards generalizing the findings of sexual selection theory to account for the ubiquitous dynamism of animal courtship.

Significance statement

Animal courtship displays are typically costly for survival: songs attract predators; dances are exhausting; extravagant plumage is cumbersome. Because of the trade-off between mating benefits and survival costs, displaying individuals often vary their displays across time, courting more intensely when the potential benefit is higher or the cost is lower. Despite the ubiquity of such adjustment in nature, existing theory cannot account for how this flexibility might affect the coevolution of displays with sexual preferences, nor for the patterns of tactical display adjustment that might result, because those models treat displays as static, with fixed costs and benefits. Generalizing a well-studied model of sexual selection, we find that a static display and a flexible display can evolve under similar conditions. Our model predicts that courtship should be less intense when more competitors are present.

Risky business: males choose more receptive adults over safer subadults in a cannibalistic spider

Understanding factors affecting male mate choice can be important for tracking the dynamics of sexual selection in nature. Male brown widow spiders (Latrodectus geometricus) mate with adult as well as immature (subadult) females. Mating with adults involves costly courtship with a repertoire of signaling behaviors, and typically ends with cannibalism ("self-sacrifice" initiated by male somersault). Mating with subadults involves brief courtship with behavioral repertoire reduced to one component (vibration) and no cannibalism. We examined male mate choice as a function of risks associated with different types of mates and the cues available to courting males. Previous studies showed male preference for adults based on air-borne pheromones, but it was unclear whether that preference is maintained after males reach female's webs. We show that males prefer adults also based on silk-borne contact cues. To determine which types of cues trigger different courtship components, we swapped adults and subadults between webs. We showed that contact with adult females' webs triggers two courtship behaviors from the repertoire, with adult female's bodies triggering additional behaviors. However, vibrational signals occur regardless of the web origin or female developmental stage. We conclude that males recognize subadult females as potential mates, but are more likely to invest in costly courtship behaviors and mating attempts with adults. In our experiments, subadults were less likely to mate than adults. We conclude that mating with adults could be the preferred option for males because of the higher likelihood of copulation, even at the cost of a higher risk of cannibalism.

Venom and Social Behavior: The Potential of Using Spiders to Evaluate the Evolution of Sociality under High Risk

Risks of sociality, including competition and conspecific aggression, are particularly pronounced in venomous invertebrates such as arachnids. Spiders show a wide range of sociality, with differing levels of cannibalism and other types of social aggression. To have the greatest chance of surviving interactions with conspecifics, spiders must learn to assess and respond to risk. One of the major ways risk assessment is studied in spiders is via venom metering, in which spiders choose how much venom to use based on prey and predator characteristics. While venom metering in response to prey acquisition and predator defense is well-studied, less is known about its use in conspecific interactions. Here we argue that due to the wide range of both sociality and venom found in spiders, they are poised to be an excellent system for testing questions regarding whether and how venom use relates to the evolution of social behavior and, in return, whether social behavior influences venom use and evolution. We focus primarily on the widow spiders, Latrodectus, as a strong model for testing these hypotheses. Given that successful responses to risk are vital for maintaining sociality, comparative analysis of spider taxa in which venom metering and sociality vary can provide valuable insights into the evolution and maintenance of social behavior under risk.

Male competition reverses female preference for male chemical cues

Females must choose among potential mates with different phenotypes in a variety of social contexts. Many male traits are inherent and unchanging, but others are labile to social context. Competition, for example, can cause physiological changes that reflect recent wins and losses that fluctuate throughout time. We may expect females to respond differently to males depending on the outcome of their most recent fight. In Bolitotherus cornutus (forked fungus beetles), males compete for access to females, but copulation requires female cooperation. In this study, we use behavioral trials to determine whether females use chemical cues to differentiate between males and whether the outcome of recent male competition alters female preference. We measured female association time with chemical cues of two size-matched males both before and after male-male competition. Females in our study preferred to associate with future losers before males interacted, but changed their preference for realized winners following male competitive interactions. Our study provides the first evidence of change in female preference based solely on the outcome of male-male competition.

Males of a sexually cannibalistic spider chemically assess relative female quality

Background

Mate choice is a taxonomically wide-spread phenomenon, mostly exerted by females although male mate choice occurs as well. While costs and benefits of choosiness have been well studied, the underlying mechanisms are largely unclear. Different models exist, namely best-of-n or threshold rules, based on sequential or simultaneous sampling, which differ in the required cognitive demands. We applied an experimental approach to shed light on the underlying mechanisms of male mate choice in the sexually cannibalistic spider Argiope bruennichi. Males are limited to two copulations and preferentially monopolise large females, while they may leave smaller females after a single copulation and resume mate search. Here, we utilised significant size-differences between females from Northern and Southern populations and presented males with three different-sized females that were matched for origin: all three females originated either from the same Northern European population as the males or from Southern populations where the smallest female was about the same size as the largest Northern female. This allowed testing the hypothesis that males base their mating tactic on a fixed local size threshold. We predicted Northern males to be choosy among Northern females, but to accept all Southern females since they would all be above that threshold.

Results

Males copulated with the first female they encountered, which was independent of her body size. Regardless of the females’ origins, males chose a monogynous tactic with the largest female in the trio, while they left the smallest female after one copulation. The same pattern applied to Southern females even though the smallest females in the trio were of a similar size as monopolised Northern females. Since males have poor eyesight and did not actively sample all females, they likely have gained information about relative size differences between females based on volatile chemical cues only.

Conclusions

Our findings suggest that male A. bruennichi can assess relative differences in mate quality and adjust their mating tactic to the prevailing conditions (Northern vs. Southern). We reject the presence of a locally-adapted fixed threshold and argue that our results are best explained by an adjustable threshold that was raised under Southern conditions.

Black widows as plastic wallflowers: female choosiness increases with indicators of high mate availability in a natural population

Female choice is an important driver of sexual selection, but can be costly, particularly when choosy females risk remaining unmated or experience delays to reproduction. Thus, females should reduce choosiness when mate encounter rates are low. We asked whether choosiness is affected by social context, which may provide reliable information about the local availability of mates. This has been demonstrated in the lab, but rarely under natural conditions. We studied western black widow spiders (Latrodectus hesperus) in the field, placing experimental final-instar immature females so they were either ‘isolated’ or ‘clustered’ near naturally occurring conspecifics (≥10 m or ≤1 m, respectively, from a microhabitat occupied by at least one other female). Upon maturity, females in both treatments were visited by similar numbers of males, but clustered females were visited by males earlier and in more rapid succession than isolated females, confirming that proximity to conspecifics reduces the risk of remaining unmated. As predicted, isolated females were less choosy in staged mating trials, neither rejecting males nor engaging in pre-copulatory cannibalism, in contrast to clustered females. These results demonstrate that exposure of females to natural variation in demography in the field can alter choosiness of adults. Thus, female behaviour in response to cues of local population density can affect the intensity of sexual selection on males in the wild.

The role of silk in courtship and communication in mygalomorph spiders: Do males regulate their courtship in response to female mating status?

In spiders, pheromones are known to be responsible for attracting the opposite sex, eliciting male searching and courtship behaviors, as well as for synchronizing potential mates in space and time. Most spiders are cannibalistic and aggressive. Thus, early recognition of a female as a possible mate is essential for males, who may suffer high energetic or reproductive costs to the extreme of losing all fitness opportunities. In Acanthogonatus centralis Goloboff 1995, a mygalomorph spider, what female signs might be triggering male courtship behavior remain unknown, as well as whether males can discriminate between females. The aims of the present work were (1) establishing whether males can detect the presence of females using airborne and silk-borne signals and (2) determining whether males can discriminate the reproductive status and body condition of females. We found no evidence that airborne pheromones play a role in the sexual communication of A. centralis, but silk-bound contact signals function as a female advertisement. Also, this is the first study that demonstrates that male mygalomorph spiders can discriminate between different signals on silk through direct contact, showing a preference for unmated females.

Particular Levels of Odors Released by Virgin Females Attract Conspecific Males of the Funnel-Web Spider Allagelena difficilis

Female-released chemical signals are crucial clues for mate-searching males to locate and gain sexual receptivity of conspecific females. Abundant behavioral evidence indicates that female spiders release sex pheromones to guide mate-searching behavior of conspecific mature males. However, the chemical nature of spider pheromones is poorly understood. Females of the funnel-web spider, Allagelena difficilis, employ sit-and-wait tactics for mating. Field observations indicate that males leave their retreats to search for potential mates during the breeding season. Therefore, we investigated whether virgin females release a sex attractant to conspecific males and then explored the chemical nature of the female pheromone. Four fatty acids extracted from the female bodies (palmitic acid, linoleic acid, cis-vaccenic acid and stearic acid) constitute a multiple-component sex attractant to conspecific males in A. difficilis. Unexpectedly, mated females also produce the same fatty acids, but at trace levels. Two-choice experiments showed that males were significantly attracted by the blend of the four fatty acids in appropriate concentrations while avoiding the blend consisting of the same acids at very low concentrations, suggesting that mate-searching males are able to discriminate virgin females from mated females by the quantities of female-specific fatty acids in the funnel-web spider A. difficilis.

Neutral fitness outcomes contradict inferences of sexual 'coercion' derived from male's damaging mating tactic in a widow spider

Sexual conflict over mating frequency has driven the evolution of morphological and behavioural traits across taxa. Interactions may be termed ‘coercive’ and assumed to arise from conflict when male mating behaviours cause physical injury to females and females appear to resist injurious matings.However, coercion per se occurs only if the behaviour reduces female fitness; and such outcomes are rarely measured. Here we show that a damaging mating tactic, apparently adaptive for males, is not coercive for females. Adult male Latrodectus spiders mate with immature females after tearing the exoskeleton covering the female’s recently-developed reproductive tract, which can cause haemolymph bleeding. We show that, relative to pairings with adult females, males use reduced courtship displays when approaching immature females, which in some cases respond with elevated deterrent behavioural responses. Nevertheless, we found no reproductive cost for immature-mated females in terms of longevity, fertility or fecundity. Moreover, most immature-mated females did not produce sex pheromones as adults, so did not seek additional matings. Thus, despite the appearance of conflict there is no evidence that immature-mating is coercive. These results show it is critical to measure fitness outcomes, in addition to behavioural responses, to test for coercion.

Variation in the web-based chemical cues of Argiope keyserlingi

Pheromones are chemical compounds used to transmit information between individuals of the same species. Pheromone composition is influenced by both genetic and environmental factors. Numerous studies, predominately of insects, have demonstrated a role for diet in pheromone expression. The chemical composition of spider web-silk varies with diet and in many species these chemicals are crucial to mate choice processes. Here, we investigated individual variation in the chemical compounds found on the surface of web-silk of female Argiope keyserlingi, and further explored the degree to which they are influenced by diet, investment in egg sac production and site of collection. We observed variation in the web-based chemical cues both between and within individuals. Additionally, we found that some of this variation could be explained by diet and gravid status but not by collection site. We discuss our findings in relation to mate choice processes and the costs and benefits of the observed variation in these web-based chemicals.

Identification and Synthesis of Branched Wax-type Esters, Novel Surface Lipids from the Spider Argyrodes elevatus (Araneae: Theridiidae)

The analysis of cuticular extracts from the kleptoparasitic spider Argyrodes elevatus revealed the presence of unusual esters, new for arthropods. These novel compounds proved to be methyl-branched long-chain fatty acid esters with methyl branches located either close or remote from the internally located ester group. The GC/MS analysis of the prosoma lipid blend from the male cuticle contained one major component, undecyl 2-methyltridecanoate (1). In contrast, four major wax-type esters, 2-methylundecyl 2,8-dimethylundecanoate (2), 2,8-dimethylundecyl 2,8-dimethylundecanoate (3), heptadecyl 4-methylheptanoate (4), and 14-methylheptadecyl 4-methylheptanoate (5), were identified in the lipid blend of female prosomata. Structure assignments were based on mass spectra, gas chromatographic retention indices, and microderivatization. Unambiguous proof of postulated structures was ensured by an independent synthesis of all five esters. Preferentially, odd-numbered carbon chains pointed to a distinct biosynthetic pathway, different from that of common fatty acids, because one or two C₃ starter units are incorporated during the biosynthesis of all acid and alcohol building blocks present in the five esters. The striking sexual dimorphism together with the unique biosynthesis points to a function of the esters in chemical communication of the spiders, although no behavioral data are currently available to test this assumption.

Chemical signals might mediate interactions between females and juveniles of Latrodectus geometricus (Araneae: Theridiidae)

Studies related to communication on spiders show that, as in other invertebrates, the interactions between conspecifics are also made through chemical signals. Therefore, in order to assess whether the composition of cuticular compounds might be involved in interactions that occur during the days after the emergence of juveniles in Latrodectus geometricus, we conducted behavioral and cuticular chemical profiles analysis of females and juveniles of different ages. The results show that females, regardless of their reproductive state, tolerate juveniles of other females with up to 40 days post-emergence and attack juveniles of 80 days post-emergence. Cuticlar chemical analysis shows that while the profile of juveniles is similar to adult's profile, they can remain in the web without being confused with threat or prey. Also, cuticular chemical profiles vary between different populations probably due to genetic and environmental differences or similarities between them. Finally, females in incubation period are able to detect the presence of eggs within any egg sac, but cannot distinguish egg sacs produced by conspecifics from the ones they had produced.