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Skin-Based Vaccination: A Systematic Mapping Review of the Types of Vaccines and Methods Used and Immunity and Protection Elicited in Pigs. Vaccines (Basel) 2023; 11:vaccines11020450. [PMID: 36851328 PMCID: PMC9962282 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines11020450] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2023] [Revised: 02/10/2023] [Accepted: 02/13/2023] [Indexed: 02/18/2023] Open
Abstract
The advantages of skin-based vaccination include induction of strong immunity, dose-sparing, and ease of administration. Several technologies for skin-based immunisation in humans are being developed to maximise these key advantages. This route is more conventionally used in veterinary medicine. Skin-based vaccination of pigs is of high relevance due to their anatomical, physiological, and immunological similarities to humans, as well as being a source of zoonotic diseases and their livestock value. We conducted a systematic mapping review, focusing on vaccine-induced immunity and safety after the skin immunisation of pigs. Veterinary vaccines, specifically anti-viral vaccines, predominated in the literature. The safe and potent skin administration to pigs of adjuvanted vaccines, particularly emulsions, are frequently documented. Multiple methods of skin immunisation exist; however, there is a lack of consistent terminology and accurate descriptions of the route and device. Antibody responses, compared to other immune correlates, are most frequently reported. There is a lack of research on the underlying mechanisms of action and breadth of responses. Nevertheless, encouraging results, both in safety and immunogenicity, were observed after skin vaccination that were often comparable to or superior the intramuscular route. Further research in this area will underlie the development of enhanced skin vaccine strategies for pigs, other animals and humans.
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Lu Z, Yu S, Wang W, Chen W, Wang X, Wu K, Li X, Fan S, Ding H, Yi L, Chen J. Development of Foot-and-Mouth Disease Vaccines in Recent Years. Vaccines (Basel) 2022; 10:1817. [PMID: 36366327 PMCID: PMC9693445 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines10111817] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2022] [Revised: 10/24/2022] [Accepted: 10/26/2022] [Indexed: 12/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a serious disease affecting the global graziery industry. Once an epidemic occurs, it can lead to economic and trade stagnation. In recent decades, FMD has been effectively controlled and even successfully eradicated in some countries or regions through mandatory vaccination with inactivated foot-and-mouth disease vaccines. Nevertheless, FMD still occurs in some parts of Africa and Asia. The transmission efficiency of foot-and-mouth disease is high. Both disease countries and disease-free countries should always be prepared to deal with outbreaks of FMD. The development of vaccines has played a key role in this regard. This paper summarizes the development of several promising vaccines including progress and design ideas. It also provides ways to develop a new generation of vaccines for FMDV and other major diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhimin Lu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, No. 483 Wushan Road, Tianhe District, Guangzhou 510642, China
- Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Prevention and Control of Guangdong Province, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Shu Yu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, No. 483 Wushan Road, Tianhe District, Guangzhou 510642, China
- Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Prevention and Control of Guangdong Province, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Weijun Wang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, No. 483 Wushan Road, Tianhe District, Guangzhou 510642, China
- Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Prevention and Control of Guangdong Province, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Wenxian Chen
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, No. 483 Wushan Road, Tianhe District, Guangzhou 510642, China
- Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Prevention and Control of Guangdong Province, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Xinyan Wang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, No. 483 Wushan Road, Tianhe District, Guangzhou 510642, China
- Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Prevention and Control of Guangdong Province, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Keke Wu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, No. 483 Wushan Road, Tianhe District, Guangzhou 510642, China
- Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Prevention and Control of Guangdong Province, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Xiaowen Li
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, No. 483 Wushan Road, Tianhe District, Guangzhou 510642, China
- Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Prevention and Control of Guangdong Province, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Shuangqi Fan
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, No. 483 Wushan Road, Tianhe District, Guangzhou 510642, China
- Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Prevention and Control of Guangdong Province, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Hongxing Ding
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, No. 483 Wushan Road, Tianhe District, Guangzhou 510642, China
- Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Prevention and Control of Guangdong Province, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Lin Yi
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, No. 483 Wushan Road, Tianhe District, Guangzhou 510642, China
- Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Prevention and Control of Guangdong Province, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Jingding Chen
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, No. 483 Wushan Road, Tianhe District, Guangzhou 510642, China
- Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Prevention and Control of Guangdong Province, Guangzhou 510642, China
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Bernelin-Cottet C, Urien C, McCaffrey J, Collins D, Donadei A, McDaid D, Jakob V, Barnier-Quer C, Collin N, Bouguyon E, Bordet E, Barc C, Boulesteix O, Leplat JJ, Blanc F, Contreras V, Bertho N, Moore AC, Schwartz-Cornil I. Electroporation of a nanoparticle-associated DNA vaccine induces higher inflammation and immunity compared to its delivery with microneedle patches in pigs. J Control Release 2019; 308:14-28. [PMID: 31265882 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2019.06.041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2019] [Revised: 06/26/2019] [Accepted: 06/28/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
DNA vaccination is an attractive technology, based on its well-established manufacturing process, safety profile, adaptability to rapidly combat pandemic pathogens, and stability at ambient temperature; however an optimal delivery method of DNA remains to be determined. As pigs are a relevant model for humans, we comparatively evaluated the efficiency of vaccine DNA delivery in vivo to pigs using dissolvable microneedle patches, intradermal inoculation with needle (ID), surface electroporation (EP), with DNA associated or not to cationic poly-lactic-co-glycolic acid nanoparticles (NPs). We used a luciferase encoding plasmid (pLuc) as a reporter and vaccine plasmids encoding antigens from the Porcine Reproductive and Respiratory Syndrome Virus (PRRSV), a clinically-significant swine arterivirus. Patches were successful at inducing luciferase expression in skin although at lower level than EP. EP induced the cutaneaous recruitment of granulocytes, of MHC2posCD172Apos myeloid cells and type 1 conventional dendritic cells, in association with local production of IL-1β, IL-8 and IL-17; these local responses were more limited with ID and undetectable with patches. The addition of NP to EP especially promoted the recruitment of the MHC2posCD172Apos CD163int and CD163neg myeloid subsets. Notably we obtained the strongest and broadest IFNγ T-cell response against a panel of PRRSV antigens with DNA + NPs delivered by EP, whereas patches and ID were ineffective. The anti-PRRSV IgG responses were the highest with EP administration independently of NPs, mild with ID, and undetectable with patches. These results contrast with the immunogenicity and efficacy previously induced in mice with patches. This study concludes that successful DNA vaccine administration in skin can be achieved in pigs with electroporation and patches, but only the former induces local inflammation, humoral and cellular immunity, with the highest potency when NPs were used. This finding shows the importance of evaluating the delivery and immunogenicity of DNA vaccines beyond the mouse model in a preclinical model relevant to human such as pig and reveals that EP with DNA combined to NP induces strong immunogenicity.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Céline Urien
- VIM, INRA, Université Paris-Saclay, Domaine de Vilvert, 78350 Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | - Joanne McCaffrey
- School of Pharmacy, School of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland; Xeolas Pharmaceuticals Ltd., Dublin, Ireland
| | - Damien Collins
- School of Pharmacy, School of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland; Xeolas Pharmaceuticals Ltd., Dublin, Ireland
| | - Agnese Donadei
- School of Pharmacy, School of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland; Xeolas Pharmaceuticals Ltd., Dublin, Ireland
| | | | - Virginie Jakob
- Vaccine Formulation Laboratory, University of Lausanne, Chemin des Boveresses 155, 1066 Epalinges, Switzerland
| | - Christophe Barnier-Quer
- Vaccine Formulation Laboratory, University of Lausanne, Chemin des Boveresses 155, 1066 Epalinges, Switzerland
| | - Nicolas Collin
- Vaccine Formulation Laboratory, University of Lausanne, Chemin des Boveresses 155, 1066 Epalinges, Switzerland
| | - Edwige Bouguyon
- VIM, INRA, Université Paris-Saclay, Domaine de Vilvert, 78350 Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | - Elise Bordet
- VIM, INRA, Université Paris-Saclay, Domaine de Vilvert, 78350 Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | | | | | - Jean-Jacques Leplat
- GABI, INRA-AgroParisTech, Université Paris-Saclay, Domaine de Vilvert, 78350 Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | - Fany Blanc
- GABI, INRA-AgroParisTech, Université Paris-Saclay, Domaine de Vilvert, 78350 Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | - Vanessa Contreras
- Immunology of viral infections and autoimmune diseases, IDMIT Department, IBFJ, INSERM U1184-CEA - Université Paris Sud 11, Fontenay-Aux-Roses et Le Kremlin-Bicêtre, France
| | - Nicolas Bertho
- VIM, INRA, Université Paris-Saclay, Domaine de Vilvert, 78350 Jouy-en-Josas, France; BIOEPAR, Oniris, INRA, 44307 Nantes, France
| | - Anne C Moore
- School of Pharmacy, School of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
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Foot-and-mouth disease vaccines: recent updates and future perspectives. Arch Virol 2019; 164:1501-1513. [PMID: 30888563 DOI: 10.1007/s00705-019-04216-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2018] [Accepted: 03/16/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a major worldwide viral disease in animals, affecting the national and international trade of livestock and animal products and leading to high economic losses and social consequences. Effective control measures of FMD involve prevention through vaccination with inactivated vaccines. These inactivated vaccines, unfortunately, require short-term protection and cold-chain and high-containment facilities. Major advances and pursuit of hot topics in vaccinology and vectorology are ongoing, involving peptide vaccines, DNA vaccines, live vector vaccines, and novel attenuated vaccines. DIVA capability and marker vaccines are very important in differentiating infected animals from vaccinated animals. This review focuses on updating the research progress of these novel vaccines, summarizing their merits and including ideas for improvement.
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Mignaqui AC, Ruiz V, Durocher Y, Wigdorovitz A. Advances in novel vaccines for foot and mouth disease: focus on recombinant empty capsids. Crit Rev Biotechnol 2019; 39:306-320. [DOI: 10.1080/07388551.2018.1554619] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ana Clara Mignaqui
- National Agricultural Technology Institute, Institute of Virology and Technological Innovations IVIT, CONICET-INTA, Hurlingham, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Vanesa Ruiz
- National Agricultural Technology Institute, Institute of Virology and Technological Innovations IVIT, CONICET-INTA, Hurlingham, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Yves Durocher
- Human Health Therapeutics Research Center, National Research Council Canada, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Andrés Wigdorovitz
- National Agricultural Technology Institute, Institute of Virology and Technological Innovations IVIT, CONICET-INTA, Hurlingham, Buenos Aires, Argentina
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Gao Y, Sun SQ, Guo HC. Biological function of Foot-and-mouth disease virus non-structural proteins and non-coding elements. Virol J 2016; 13:107. [PMID: 27334704 PMCID: PMC4917953 DOI: 10.1186/s12985-016-0561-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2016] [Accepted: 06/13/2016] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) represses host translation machinery, blocks protein secretion, and cleaves cellular proteins associated with signal transduction and the innate immune response to infection. Non-structural proteins (NSPs) and non-coding elements (NCEs) of FMDV play a critical role in these biological processes. The FMDV virion consists of capsid and nucleic acid. The virus genome is a positive single stranded RNA and encodes a single long open reading frame (ORF) flanked by a long structured 5ʹ-untranslated region (5ʹ-UTR) and a short 3ʹ-UTR. The ORF is translated into a polypeptide chain and processed into four structural proteins (VP1, VP2, VP3, and VP4), 10 NSPs (Lpro, 2A, 2B, 2C, 3A, 3B1–3, 3Cpro, and 3Dpol), and some cleavage intermediates. In the past decade, an increasing number of studies have begun to focus on the molecular pathogenesis of FMDV NSPs and NCEs. This review collected recent research progress on the biological functions of these NSPs and NCEs on the replication and host cellular regulation of FMDV to understand the molecular mechanism of host–FMDV interactions and provide perspectives for antiviral strategy and development of novel vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuan Gao
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology and OIE/National Foot and Mouth Disease Reference Laboratory, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, Gansu, 730046, China
| | - Shi-Qi Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology and OIE/National Foot and Mouth Disease Reference Laboratory, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, Gansu, 730046, China
| | - Hui-Chen Guo
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology and OIE/National Foot and Mouth Disease Reference Laboratory, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, Gansu, 730046, China.
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Zhou G, Wang H, Wang F, Yu L. Recombinant adenovirus expressing type Asia1 foot-and-mouth disease virus capsid proteins induces protective immunity against homologous virus challenge in mice. Res Vet Sci 2013; 94:796-802. [DOI: 10.1016/j.rvsc.2012.12.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2012] [Revised: 11/20/2012] [Accepted: 12/06/2012] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
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Chen HT, Liu YS. Immunity of foot-and-mouth disease serotype Asia 1 by sublingual vaccination. PLoS One 2013; 8:e63839. [PMID: 23717497 PMCID: PMC3661678 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0063839] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2012] [Accepted: 04/11/2013] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) causes vesicular disease of cloven-hoofed animals, with severe agricultural and economic losses. Here we present study using a sublingual (SL) route with the killed serotype Asia 1 FMDV vaccine. Guinea pigs were vaccinated using a commercially available vaccine formulation at the manufacturer’s recommended full, 1/4, and 1/16 antigen doses. Animals were challenged with homologous FMDV Asia1 strain at various times following vaccination. All control guinea pigs exhibited clinical disease, including fever, viremia, and lesions, specifically vesicle formation in feet. Animals vaccinated with the 1/16 and 1/4 doses were protected after challenge at days 7, 28, and 35 post vaccination. These data suggest that effective protection against foot-and-mouth disease can be achieved with 1/16 of the recommended vaccine dose using SL vaccination, indicating that the sublingual route is an attractive alternative for the administration of the FMDV vaccine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hao-tai Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiologic Biology, National Foot-and-Mouth Disease Reference Laboratory of China, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, Gansu, P. R. China
- * E-mail: (HTC); (YSL)
| | - Yong-sheng Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiologic Biology, National Foot-and-Mouth Disease Reference Laboratory of China, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, Gansu, P. R. China
- * E-mail: (HTC); (YSL)
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Dar PA, Suryanaryana VS, Nagarajan G, Reddy GR, Dechamma HJ, Kondabattula G. DNA prime-protein boost strategy with replicase-based DNA vaccine against foot-and-mouth disease in bovine calves. Vet Microbiol 2013; 163:62-70. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2012.12.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2012] [Revised: 12/13/2012] [Accepted: 12/17/2012] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Dar PA, Ganesh K, Nagarajan G, Sarika S, Reddy GR, Suryanarayana VVS. Sindbis virus replicase-based DNA vaccine construct encoding FMDV-specific multivalent epitope gene: studies on its immune responses in guinea pigs. Scand J Immunol 2012; 76:345-53. [PMID: 22702835 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-3083.2012.02733.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is still a perennial global menace affecting livestock health and production. It is imperative to figure out new ways to curb this disease. In this study, a sindbis virus replicase-based DNA vaccine, pSinCMV-Vac-MEG990, encoding a multivalent epitope gene (representing tandemly linked VP1 C-terminal halves of three foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) serotypes) was constructed. In vitro transfection studies in BHK-21 cells revealed that the construct was able to express FMDV-specific antigen but does not overproduce the antigen. Immunization of guinea pigs with the construct at dose rate of 10, 5, 2 and 1 μg per animal through intramuscular route showed significant neutralizing antibody induction at all doses against all serotype tested as compared to non-immunized controls. On viral challenge of guinea pigs 4 week post-immunization with 1000 GPID(50) of FMDV serotype A, it was observed that the immunization not only delayed the appearance and reduced the severity of FMD lesions significantly (P < 0.05) but also provided complete protection in several guinea pigs. In fact, two of six and one of six guinea pigs were completely protected in 10 and 5 μg immunized groups, respectively. These results suggest that the development of the replicase-based DNA vaccine may provide a promising approach as an alternative vaccine strategy for controlling FMD.
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Affiliation(s)
- P A Dar
- FMD Research Centre, Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India
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Gaikwad S, Kumar S, Prashanth T, Rama Reddy G, Sanyasi Suryanarayana V, Joyappa Dechamma H. Transcriptional Expression Profile of Toll Like Receptor 1 - 10 mRNA in Bovine Peripheral Mononuclear Cells in Response to Foot and Mouth Disease Antigens. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2012. [DOI: 10.4236/aim.2012.24053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Vesicular Stomatitis Virus glycoprotein G carrying a tandem dimer of Foot and Mouth Disease Virus antigenic site A can be used as DNA and peptide vaccine for cattle. Antiviral Res 2011; 92:219-27. [DOI: 10.1016/j.antiviral.2011.08.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2011] [Revised: 07/27/2011] [Accepted: 08/09/2011] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Brun A, Bárcena J, Blanco E, Borrego B, Dory D, Escribano JM, Le Gall-Reculé G, Ortego J, Dixon LK. Current strategies for subunit and genetic viral veterinary vaccine development. Virus Res 2011; 157:1-12. [PMID: 21316403 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2011.02.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2010] [Revised: 02/03/2011] [Accepted: 02/04/2011] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Developing vaccines for livestock provides researchers with the opportunity to perform efficacy testing in the natural hosts. This enables the evaluation of different strategies, including definition of effective antigens or antigen combinations, and improvement in delivery systems for target antigens so that protective immune responses can be modulated or potentiated. An impressive amount of knowledge has been generated in recent years on vaccine strategies and consequently a wide variety of antigen delivery systems is now available for vaccine research. This paper reviews several antigen production and delivery strategies other than those based on the use of live viral vectors. Genetic and protein subunit vaccines as well as alternative production systems are considered in this review.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alejandro Brun
- Centro de Investigación en Sanidad Animal (CISA-INIA), Valdeolmos, 28130 Madrid, Spain.
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