Potent inhibition of influenza virus replication with novel siRNA-chimeric-ribozyme constructs

Structural variants and modifications of hammerhead ribozymes targeting influenza A virus conserved structural motifs

The naturally occurring structure and biological functions of RNA are correlated, which includes hammerhead ribozymes. We proposed new variants of hammerhead ribozymes targeting conserved structural motifs of segment 5 of influenza A virus (IAV) (+)RNA. The variants carry structural and chemical modifications aiming to improve the RNA cleavage activity of ribozymes. We introduced an additional hairpin motif and attempted to select ribozyme-target pairs with sequence features that enable the potential formation of the trans-Hoogsteen interactions that are present in full-length, highly active hammerhead ribozymes. We placed structurally defined guanosine analogs into the ribozyme catalytic core. Herein, the significantly improved synthesis of 2′-deoxy-2′-fluoroarabinoguanosine derivatives is described. The most potent hammerhead ribozymes were applied to chimeric short hairpin RNA (shRNA)-ribozyme plasmid constructs to improve the antiviral activity of the two components. The modified hammerhead ribozymes showed moderate cleavage activity. Treatment of IAV-infected Madin-Darby canine kidney (MDCK) cells with the plasmid constructs resulted in significant inhibition of virus replication. Real-time PCR analysis revealed a significant (80%–88%) reduction in viral RNA when plasmids carriers were used. A focus formation assay (FFA) for chimeric plasmids showed inhibition of virus replication by 1.6–1.7 log₁₀ units, whereas the use of plasmids carrying ribozymes or shRNAs alone resulted in lower inhibition.

RNA Secondary Structure as a First Step for Rational Design of the Oligonucleotides towards Inhibition of Influenza A Virus Replication

Influenza is an important research subject around the world because of its threat to humanity. Influenza A virus (IAV) causes seasonal epidemics and sporadic, but dangerous pandemics. A rapid antigen changes and recombination of the viral RNA genome contribute to the reduced effectiveness of vaccination and anti-influenza drugs. Hence, there is a necessity to develop new antiviral drugs and strategies to limit the influenza spread. IAV is a single-stranded negative sense RNA virus with a genome (viral RNA—vRNA) consisting of eight segments. Segments within influenza virion are assembled into viral ribonucleoprotein (vRNP) complexes that are independent transcription-replication units. Each step in the influenza life cycle is regulated by the RNA and is dependent on its interplay and dynamics. Therefore, viral RNA can be a proper target to design novel therapeutics. Here, we briefly described examples of anti-influenza strategies based on the antisense oligonucleotide (ASO), small interfering RNA (siRNA), microRNA (miRNA) and catalytic nucleic acids. In particular we focused on the vRNA structure-function relationship as well as presented the advantages of using secondary structure information in predicting therapeutic targets and the potential future of this field.

Advancements in Nucleic Acid Based Therapeutics against Respiratory Viral Infections

Several viruses cause pulmonary infections due to their shared tropism with cells of the respiratory tract. These respiratory problems due to viral infection become a public health concern due to rapid transmission through air/aerosols or via direct-indirect contact with infected persons. In addition, the cross-species transmission causes alterations to viral genetic makeup thereby increasing the risk of emergence of pathogens with new and more potent infectivity. With the introduction of effective nucleic acid-based technologies, post translational gene silencing (PTGS) is being increasingly used to silence viral gene targets and has shown promising approach towards management of many viral infections. Since several host factors are also utilized by these viruses during various stages of infection, silencing these host factors can also serve as promising therapeutic tool. Several nucleic acid-based technologies such as short interfering RNAs (siRNA), antisense oligonucleotides, aptamers, deoxyribozymes (DNAzymes), and ribozymes have been studied and used against management of respiratory viruses. These therapeutic nucleic acids can be efficiently delivered through the airways. Studies have also shown efficacy of gene therapy in clinical trials against respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) as well as models of respiratory diseases including severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), measles and influenza. In this review, we have summarized some of the recent advancements made in the area of nucleic acid based therapeutics and highlighted the emerging roles of nucleic acids in the management of some of the severe respiratory viral infections. We have also focused on the methods of their delivery and associated challenges.

Research progress of siRNA in anti-influenza viral infection

The harms of seasonal flu and global pandemic influenza have generally attracted attention. However, the currently administered influenza drugs and flu vaccines have certain limitations. Since the discovery of the small interfering RNA (siRNA) and its mediated RNA interference process, this molecule has been widely used in the study of anti-influenza viral infections because of its high specificity and strong selectivity. The results provided new concepts for the prevention and treatment of influenza virus. However, the siRNA still faces an enormous challenge despite extensive studies on this molecule. The research progress of siRNA in anti-influenza viral infection was reviewed in this study.

Potent Intracellular Knock-Down of Influenza A Virus M2 Gene Transcript by DNAzymes Considerably Reduces Viral Replication in Host Cells

Influenza A virus has been known to be an important respiratory pathogen and cause of several epidemics and devastating pandemics leading to loss of life and resources across the globe. The M2 ion channel protein is highly conserved and essentially required during the trafficking, assembly, and budding processes of virus, thus an attractive target for designing antiviral drugs. We designed several 10-23 DNAzymes (Dz) targeting different regions of the M2 gene and analyzed their ability to specifically cleave the target RNA in both cell-free system as well as in cell culture using transient transfections. Dz114, among several others, directed against the predicted single-stranded bulge regions showed 70% inhibition of M2 gene expression validated by PCR and Western blot analysis. The activity was dependent on Mg(2+) (10-50 mM) in a dose-dependent manner. The mutant-Dz against M2 gene showed no down-regulation thereby illustrating high level of specificity of designed Dz114 towards the target RNA. Our findings suggest that Dz may be used as potential inhibitor of viral RNA replication and can be explored further for development of an effective therapeutic agent against influenza infection. These catalytic nucleic acid molecules may further be investigated as an alternative to the traditional influenza vaccines that require annual formulation.

Disruption of dengue virus transmission by mosquitoes

Current control efforts for mosquito-borne arboviruses focus on mosquito control involving insecticide applications, which are becoming increasingly ineffective and unsustainable in urban areas. Mosquito population replacement is an alternative arbovirus control concept aiming at replacing virus-competent vector populations with laboratory-engineered incompetent vectors. A prerequisite for this strategy is the design of robust anti-pathogen effectors that can ultimately be genetically driven through a wild-type population. Several anti-pathogen effector concepts have been developed that target the RNA genomes of arboviruses such as dengue virus in a highly sequence-specific manner. Design principles are based on long inverted-repeat RNA triggered RNA interference, catalytic hammerhead ribozymes, and trans-splicing Group I Introns that are able to induce apoptosis in virus-infected cells following splicing with target viral RNA.

Cross-protective effect of antisense oligonucleotide developed against the common 3' NCR of influenza A virus genome

The influenza A virus (IAV) has eight segmented single-stranded RNA genome containing a common and evolutionarily conserved non-coding region (NCRs) at 5' and 3' ends that are important for the virus replication. In this study, we designed an antisense oligonucleotide against the 3' NCR of vital segments of the IAV genome to inhibit its replication. The results demonstrated that the co-transfection of Madine Darby Canine Kidney (MDCK) cells with the antisense oligonucleotide and the plasmids encoding the viral genes led to the down-regulation of the viral gene expression. The designed antisense molecules reduced the cytopathic effect caused by A/PR/8/34 (H1N1), A/Udorn/307/72 (H3N2), and A/New Caledonia/20/99 (H1N1) strains of IAV for almost 48 h. Furthermore, the intra-venous delivery of this oligonucleotide significantly reduced the viral titers in the lungs of infected mice and protected the mice from lethal effects of all the strains of influenza virus. The study demonstrated that the antisense oligonucleotide designed against the NCR region inhibits the expression of the viral genome. The decrease of the cytopathic effect in the MDCK cells and increase in survival of mice confirmed the reduction of virus multiplication and pathogenesis in the presence of antisense oligonucleotide. Thus, we demonstrate that a single antisense oligonucleotide is capable of providing protection against more than one strains of the IAV.

Therapeutics against influenza

Despite 75 years of research into prevention and treatment of influenza, the viruses that cause this disease continue to rank as some of the most important pathogens afflicting humans today. Progress in development of therapeutics for influenza has been slow for much of that time, but has accelerated in pace over the last two decades. Two classes of antiviral medications are used in humans at present, but each has limitations in scope and effectiveness of use. New strategies involving these licensed agents, including alternate forms of delivery and combination therapy with other drugs, are currently being explored. In addition, several novel antiviral compounds are in various clinical phases of development. Together with strategies designed to target the virus itself, new approaches to interrupt host–pathogen interactions or modulate detrimental aspects of the immune response have been proposed. Therapy for influenza will likely undergo substantial changes in the decades to come, evolving with our knowledge of pathogenesis as new approaches become viable and are validated clinically.

Small interfering RNA targeting the nonstructural gene 1 transcript inhibits influenza A virus replication in experimental mice

Nonstructural protein 1 (NS1) of influenza A viruses counteracts the host immune response against the influenza viruses by not only inhibiting the nuclear export and maturation of host cell messenger RNA (mRNA), but by also blocking the double-stranded RNA-activated protein kinase-mediated inhibition of viral RNA translation. Reduction of NS1 gene product in the host cell may be a potent antiviral strategy to provide protection against the influenza virus infection. We used small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) synthesized against the viral mRNA to down regulate the NS1 gene and observed its effect on inhibition of virus replication. When NS1 gene-specific siRNA were transfected in Madin Darby canine kidney (MDCK) cells followed by influenza A virus infection, approximately 60% inhibition in intracellular levels of NS1 RNA was observed. When siRNA was administered in BALB/c mice, 92% reduction in the levels of NS1 gene expression in mice lungs was observed. A significant reduction in the lung virus titers and cytokine levels was also detected in the presence of siRNAs as compared with the untreated control. The study was validated by the use of selectively disabled mutants of each set of siRNA. Our findings suggest that siRNA targeted against NS1 gene of influenza A virus can provide considerable protection to the virus-infected host cells and may be used as potential candidates for nucleic acid-based antiviral therapy for prevention of influenza A virus infection.

Nucleic acid-mediated cleavage of M1 gene of influenza A virus is significantly augmented by antisense molecules targeted to hybridize close to the cleavage site

Influenza A virus genome segment 7 encodes protein M1, which is the matrix protein playing crucial role in the virus life cycle. Any antiviral strategy that aims at reducing, in particular, the expression of this genome segment should, in principle, reduce the infectivity of the virus. We developed a specific antiviral approach at the molecular level and designed several novel 10-23 DNAzymes (Dz) and hammerhead ribozymes (Rz), specifically targeted to cleave at the conserved domains of the influenza virus M1 RNA. We sought to use antisense molecules with the hope that it will facilitate the ribozyme-mediated cleavage. We observed that the Mg(2+)-dependent sequence-specific cleavage of M1 RNA was achieved by both the Dz and Rz in a dose-dependent manner. This combination of catalytic Dz and Rz with antisense molecules, in principle, resulted in more effective gene suppression, inhibited the whole virus replication in host cell, and thus could be exploited for therapeutic purposes.

A novel ribozyme-based prophylaxis inhibits influenza A virus replication and protects from severe disease

Influenza A virus seasonal outbreaks and occasional pandemics represent a global health threat. The high genetic instability of this virus permits rapid escape from the host immune system and emergence of resistance to antivirals. There is thus an urgent need to develop novel approaches for efficient treatment of newly emerging strains. Based on a sequence alignment of representatives from every subtype known to infect humans, we identified nucleic acid regions that are conserved amongst these influenza A populations. We then engineered SOFA-HDV-Ribozymes as therapeutic tools recognizing these conserved regions to catalytically cleave the corresponding viral mRNA targets. The most promising ribozymes were chosen based on an initial in silico screening, and their efficacy was assessed using in vitro cleavage assays. Further characterization of their antiviral effect in cell culture and in mice led to the gradual identification of prophylactic SOFA-HDV-Ribozyme combinations, providing proof-of-principle for the potential of this novel strategy to develop antivirals against genetically highly variable viruses.

A conserved matrix epitope based DNA vaccine protects mice against influenza A virus challenge

DNA vaccination represents a unique strategy to overcome the limitations of immunization with conventional vaccines which is restricted by the high variability of influenza viruses. We evaluated the protective efficacy of a plasmid DNA (pDNA), encoding an evolutionarily conserved epitope of viral matrix protein, against the influenza A virus infection. It was found that the mice immunized via the intra-muscular route purely elicited cell mediated immune response to the pDNA, with enhanced level of Th1 cytokines viz. IL-12 and IFNγ production in the stimulated splenocyte supernatant. The cytotoxic T lymphocytes in the spleen of immunized mice significantly lysed the virus-infected MDCK cells. A significant decrease in virus replication was also observed in the lungs of immunized mice and 83% of the mice were protected against the lethal challenge of influenza A viruses. These findings suggest that the plasmid DNA expressing a single matrix epitope may serve as a promising vaccine candidate to provide effective immunity in the susceptible (mouse) population.

Nanoparticulate Delivery Systems for Antiviral Drugs

Nanomedicine opens new therapeutic avenues for attacking viral diseases and for improving treatment success rates. Nanoparticulate-based systems might change the release kinetics of antivirals, increase their bioavailability, improve their efficacy, restrict adverse drug side effects and reduce treatment costs. Moreover, they could permit the delivery of antiviral drugs to specific target sites and viral reservoirs in the body. These features are particularly relevant in viral diseases where high drug doses are needed, drugs are expensive and the success of a therapy is associated with a patient's adherence to the administration protocol.

This review presents the current status in the emerging area of nanoparticulate delivery systems in antiviral therapy, providing their definition and description, and highlighting some peculiar features. The paper closes with a discussion on the future challenges that must be addressed before the potential of nanotechnology can be translated into safe and effective antiviral formulations for clinical use.